DOCUMENT RESUME ED 285 264 EA 019 606 AUTHOR Randell, Shirley, Ed. TITLE Making Progress: Women in Management in Primary 6 Secondary Education in Australia. Report of a National Conference (3rd, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia, August 1-4, 1985). INSTITUTION Australian Capital Territory Schools Authority, Canberra.; Australian Coll. of Education, Carlton, Victoria. REPORT NO ISBN-0-909587-35-3 PUB DATE Oct 85 NOTE 22 5p. PUB TYPE Collected Works - Conference Proceedings (021) — Reports - Descriptive (141) EDBS PRICE MF01/PC09 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Administrators ; Elementary Secondary Education; *Equal Opportunities (Jobs); *Females; *Sex Discrimination; *Women Faculty; Workshoos IDENTIFIERS *Australia ABSTRACT This report describes the third conference that the Australian College of Education has conducted on women in educational administration in Australia. Over 150 educators attended, 90 percent of whom were women. Meetings and workshops were designed to canvass four major issues: (1) a political view of imperatives for change; (2) research reports on women's current position in government and non-government systems and schools; (3) progress reports; and (4) the design of strategies for change. Following introductory essays by Shirley Randell and Ros Kelly, the papers appear under three major headings. Under the first heading, "The Current Situation for Women in Management in Primary and Secondary Education," four papers are listed: "Women Teachers and Promotion: A Search for Some Explanations" (Shirley Sampson); "Women Principals in Australia" (Judith Chapman); "Laywomen as Principals in Catholic Secondary Schools?" (Janice Nash); and "Women in Management in Independent Schools in Australia: Is Our Past Still Ahead of Us?" (Di Fleming). Under "State Overviews," nine papers appear: "The Development of an Equal Employment Opportunity Management Plan in New South Wales" (Kerry Hyland); "Making the Invisible Visible in Victoria" (Veronica Schwarz); I'Changing the Position of Women in the Primary Schools of the Victorian Education Department" (Marilyn Jamieson and Barry Sheehan); "Teaching: An Attractive Career for Women?" (Ann Scott and Eddie Clarke); "The South Australian Experience" (John Steinle); "Gender Equity Policy in the Education Department of Western Australia" (Warren Louden); "Women in Educational Management in Primary and Secondary Schools in Tasmania" (Beverly Richardson, Margaret Lonergan and Jan Edwards); "Women in Educational Management in the Northern Territory" (Lyn Powierza); and "Women in Educational Mahsgement in the Australian Capital Territory" (Barry Price). Under "Making Progress," six papers are listed: "Women in Management in Unions" (Di Foggo and Jennie George); "Women as Candidates for Educational Administration: A Second Interpretation" (Peter OBrien); "Lessons from the Affirmative Action Pilot Program" (Maureen Bickley); "Getting Past 'Shock-Horror': Stages in the Acceptance of Equal Opportunity in an Organisation" (Hester Eisenstein); "Making <^ gress" (Rosemary Gracanin); and "Toward the Year 2000--Ref lections ERJCthe Nairobi End of the United Nations Decade for Women Forum and ^ " gOTi ference* (Gail Radford). Included are seven appendices. (MLH) o««:i?k5J!?S2fRr:i^S^^^ -permission ;o reproduce thi EDUCATIONAL RESC' RCES INFORMATION ^^ATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED 6 CENTER (ERIC) «^ - MM This document has been r^^^'s^wced as ^\ received from the person or oroanization ^orjgtnating it □ Minor changes have been made to improve reproduction quality MATER^ HAS BEE • Poe ment do not necessarily represent official THE tDUCATIONAL RESOURCE 0ER1 pos.t.on or policy INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)," .ri#;Ayfiip^iff ?^8S, * CiilffliBRlU, ACT o cr THE AUSTRALIAN COLLEGE OF EDUCATION IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY SCHOOLS AUTHORITY MAKING PROGRESS : WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT IN PRIMARY & SECON!lARY EDUCATION IN AUSTRALIA R^-PORT OF A NATIONAL CONFERENCE 1-4 AUGUST 1985, CANBERRA, ACT Edited by Shirley Randell The Australian College of Education, Carlton, Victoria October 1985 Published by: The Australian College of Education James Darling House 916 Swanston Street Carlton, Vic. 3053 c The Australian College of Education Copies may be made of material from this publication without prior reference to the Australian College of Education and the Australian Capital Territory Schools Authority provided only that: (i) they are used for educational purposes and (ii) the source is acknowledged. National Library of Australia Card Number and ISBN 0 909587 35 3 'At present my chances for promotion are so remote that I'll have to work out some way of getting up the system, e,g, open positions. I'm a bit cynical about them though. Some open positions appear to be written for one person and you don't get a lot of encouragement towards promotion if you're a so-called nice, middle-class married lady. The fellows get the support and the career expectations, but there's a lot of women who'll just accept what I'd see as a subservient role. They really often do seem to get pushed around. Some friends of mine are like that ~ the salary is good, the holidays are good, they enjoy the sense of fulfillment ,,, it's not fulfilling for me. They're very much the second income earners. If the kids are sick, they are the ones to take time off. In our family it's often easier for ipy husband to take time off when the children are sick. I think a lot of the reason that there's so few women in senior positions is societal conditioning and expectations of little girls. They see themselves as serving and helping in secondary roles. That, plus the fact that women teachers had to resign on marriage in the past and be on temporary employment,' Cited in: Sk inner, K. (1980) Wo/nen and Proutotion : sows women ' s perceptions of the inf luences on their teaching careers South Australian Education Department, Adelaide. 5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The editor is indebted to the following persons and organisations: To Dr Greg Hancock, Chief Education Officer, and staff of the Australian Capital Territory Schools Authority for jointly sponsoring the enterprise. To the Council of the Australian College of Education through its Projects Committee, for funding and other support . To government and non-government education authorities, principal, teacher and parent associations for their support in enabling representatives to attend the conference. To the authors for their contributions. To the Conference Steering Committee, the chairpersons of conference sessions, the leaders of conference workshops and all participants in the conference for their contribution. S^ir ley RandeJl 6 FOREWORD The Australian College of Education is a professional association which represents educators at all levels and in all parts of Australia. Its members include infant school teachers; administrators and teachers from the government and non-government sectors, primary and secondary schools, universities and TAFE sectors. The College is not affiliated with any political body, union or other group. Its charter specifically excludes an industrial or union-related role. It can, therefore, speak for education in an objective' manner. In recent years the College has set out deliberately to sponsor informed debate on a number of significant issues affecting the Australian education community. A key issue of interest to a high proportion of members relates to the role of women in educational rranagement. In 1985 the College co-sponsored with the ACT Schools Authority the third of the series of conferences addressing this issue. Evidence of the significance of this issue is found in the level of participation at each conference, support for the recommendations arising from these and the popularity of the proceedings. Within the College itself there has been a noticable increase in the proportion of female members. Although women currently represent about 25% of all members; in 1985 over 40t of new members were women. This reflects the College's new emphasis on equitable representation in all its activitie9. The moving force in each of these developments has been the Prefi'ident-elect, Ms Shirley Randell, I take this opportunity to congratulate her and her steering committee on these initiatives. The papers printed in this volume reflect the concerns of those who attended this third conference. Their recommendations are designed to contribute to current debate in all school systems. The College is delighted 'to be able to publish the proceedings from this important third conference in the hope of fur he" progress for women in management in school systems. Dr P B Botsman, A,M, President I CONTFNIS Acknowledgments Foreword Peter Botsman Introduction Shirley Randell Overview Shirley Randell The Imperatives for Change H Ro3 Kelly THE CURRENT SITUATION FOR WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION Women Teachers and Promotion: a sear^ h for some 16 explanat ions Shirley Sampson vJomen Principals in Australia 79 Jvdith Chapman Laywomen as Principals in Catholic Secondary Schools? 46 Janice Nash Women in Management in Independent Schools in Australia: 51 is our past still ahead of us? Di Fleming STATE OVERVIEWS The Development of an Equal Employment Opportunity 57 Management Plan in New South Wales Kerry Hyland Making the Invisible Visible in Victoria 61 Veronica Schwarz 'ERLC 8 Changing the Position of Women in the Primary Schools of the Victorian Education Department narilyn Jamieson and Barry Sheehan 67 Teaching: an attractive career for women? 81 Ann Scott and Eddie Clarke The South Australian Experience 100 John Steinle Gender Equity Policy in the Education Department of 104 Western Australia Warren Louden Women in Managemeiit in Primary and Secondary Schools in HI Tasmania Beverley Richardson, Margaret Lonergan and Jan Edwards Women in Educational Management in the Northern Territory 119 Lyn Powierza Women in Educational Management in the Australian Capital 122 Territory Barry Price MAKING PROGRESS Women In Management in Unions 129 Di Foggo and Jennie George Women as Candidates for Educational Administration: 137 a second Interpretation Peter OBrien Lessons from the Affirmative Action Pilot Program 156 Maureen Bickley Getting Past 'Shock-Horror': stages in the acceptance of 161 equal employment opportunity in an organisation Hester Eisenstein Making Progress ^ Rosemary Gracanin 165 ERLC Towards the Year 2000 - Reflections on the Nairobi End of the United Nations Decade for Women Forum and Conference Gail Radford 169 Appendix 1 Recommendations and Strategies 175 Appendix 2 Participants 188 Appendix 3 Issues for Discussion at Pre-Conf erence Meetings 195 Appendix 4 Issues from Introd ictory Workshops 197 Appendix 5 List of Resources and Papers Produced by the Education Department of Western Australia on Gender Equity In Education 200 Appendix 6 Proposed Procedures and Criteria for Evaluation for Promotion in the Education Department of Western Australia 203 Appendix 7 Contributors to this Publication 209 INTRODUCTION Shirley Randell When *The Year of Women' was first announced it was considered by many men and women to be a rather humorous event • But the declaration by the United Nations of International Women's Year and the subsequent Decade for Women have been instrumental in raising awareness of women's issues in all countries of the world. New initiatives, original research and ground-breaking decisions have emerged from the Year and women realise that this new awareness is still only beginning. The Decade for Women has brought home to many that women are half the world's people and ^hold up half the sky'; that women represent half the world's wisdom, strength, labour force and intelligence. Women are a factor in public life which can no longer be overlooked; they have been taking initiatives and pioneering activities for justice, development, peace and equality in education and in many other fields. Society's great institutions, including the church, the law and education, hav become aware of their often oppressive attitudes about women. It is thus fitting that this publication which records progress in Australian schools and school sypteins towards the participation of women in educational decision making is published in the year which celebrates the End of the Decade for Women. Equal employment opportunity is now recognised as Justifiable on the grounds of equity, efficiency and effectiveness. While there is still a long way to go before equality of opportunity in Australian society is attained, the way ahead is clearer and a start has been made upon it. Schools and school systems have a great responsibility to become a credible sign of a truly inclusive community of women and men, by transforming their structures and abandoning all discrimination and marginalisat ion based on sex, race or class. OVERVIEW Shirley Randall Background In 1982 the national Projects Committee of the Australian College of Education declared the issue of the participation of women in educational management to be a priority. In February 1983 the Council approved a grant for a national conference as the first stage of a national assessment of this topic. The Council approved a further grant in 1984 towards the sponsoring, jointly with the Institute of Higher Education, UniverrHy of New England, Armidale, of a second conference on the participation of women in higher education management. The proceedings of these conferences have been published in Changing F^cus: The Participation of Vomen in Educational ttanagement in Au^tra 1 i a and The Way Forward* Women in tUgher Education nanagement in Australia . This publication reports the proceedings of a third conference in the series, jointly sponsored in 1985 by the College and the Australian Capital Territory Schools Authority, on the participation of women in mana^emerit in primary and secondary education in Aistralia. Aims and Outcomes The aims of the conference were: to share knowledge about the extent of participation of women in educational management and the policies, programs and processes being developed by practitioners in the systems and schoolts; to identify attitudinal and structural barriers to greater participation by women in educational management; to access avenues for the prof e ;'3ional development of women in educational management; to formulate proposals for action consistent with the principles of equity in relation to decision-making structures, curriculum offerings, industrial relations, ant i- discr iminat ion legislation, financial planning, policy formulation and personnel; to disseminate findings throughout Australia; to recommend appropriate action to the participating organisations. Participan ts Invitations were sent to directors-general of all State and Territory education departments in Australia requesting tliem to support the conference by sending a team of men and women, including a senior administrator, a senior policy maker, a member of the equal employment opportunity committee, a '-egional administrator, a secondary school principal and a primary school principal. In addition, invitations were extended to national and state Catholic education offices and independent school associations, government and ERIC - 2 - non-governmant principal, teacher and parent asBociations and to senior women known to be interested In the topic. This group included Aboriginal women and women from non-^English speaking backgrounds. The response was gratifying - over one hundred and fifty people attended, although less than 10 per cent were men (Appendix 2). Pre~Conf erence Activity Prior to the conference a set of education readings was dictiibuted to all participants. Theoe included the recommendations relating to higher education from the 1983 Melbourna Conference on the Participation of Women in Educational Management, a paper by Eileen Byrne ^Legislative and non-legislative concepts of direct and indirect discrimination', a preliminary report by Shirley Sampson ^Teachers and promotions study, 1984', publications by Judith Chapman Selection and Appointment of Australian School Principals and Veronica Schwarz Women in the Education Department of Victoria, and abstracts of papers to be presented at the conference. A set of issues for consideration was also included for discussion at pr e-conf erence meetings which were held in most States (See Appendix 3). Program The conference, held on 1-4 August 1985 at the O'Connell Education Centre of the ACT Schools Authority in Canberra, was organised by a steering committee consisting of system udmini strators and school principals from the Authority, members of the College's national projects committee, a management educator, the director of the Commonwealth Schools' Commission's Education of Girls Unit, and corresponding members nominated by the directors-general of state education departr. ents. Three workshop groups were arranged. The first workshop groups, representative of levels of education, states and interests, met once to identify issues of concern to participants. These issues were synthesised into areas for ten workshops and participants elected to attend one of them (Appendix 4). This second series of workshops met six tiines to analyse key issues, consider questions and form recommendations and strategies. The third workshop groups focussed on state location and were designed to stimulate the formation of local networks and the organisation of follow up meetings. The program was designed to canvass four major issues; a political view of the imperatives for change; research reports on the current position of women in government and non-government systems and schools ; reviews of progress being made across Australia, and the design of strategies for change. The conference was opened by the Chief Education Officer of the ACT Schools Authority, Dr Greg Hancock, who welcomed participants to Canberra. The immediate past President of the Australian College of Educat^'on, Professor William Walker, provided some background to the event. The Commonwealth Minister for Education, Senator Susan Ryan, was unable to attend because of cabinet commitments and Mrs Ros Kelly, o T3 ERIC - ^ - MHR, Member for Canberra gave the opening address. She outlined three imperatives for change: firstly, the importance of redressing the obvious inequalities that exist in education systems; secondly, the need to encourage organisations to utilise all the human resources available to them an efficient and effective way; thirdly, the need to acknowledge the skflls and abilities of all the components of Australia's population* On Friday morning the opening session was devoted to a report from Dr Shiri.ey Sampson, Senior Lecturer in Education, Monash University on a national 1984 survey of qualifications and prior experience. The report examined perceptions of discrimination and attitudes to promotion of 2,380 female and male teachers in primary and secondary schools in all states. It was found that women teachers wanted promotion for similar reasons to men but that they had not been allocated apprenticeship' experiences to administrative roles* Tasks distributed by principals and senior staff were quite unequally allocated to men. An analysis of perceptions of discrimination revealed uniformity in the views of many women and men* Dr Sampson's study provided substantial evidence of the importance of a small number of factors which retard women's advancement and must be dealt with by education systems* Other sessions on the first day outlined the current situation for women in management in pr imar y and secondary education in both government and non-government sectors* Dr Judith Chapmman, Senior Lecturer in Education, Monash University, reported the results of two major national studies on Australian school principals* In addition to providing important benchmark data on the personal and professional characteristics of principals and detailed information on the procedures adopted in principal selection, the studies drew attention to alarming statistics* In 1983 only 23 per cent of Australian school principals were female, and recent evidence about principal selection in Victoria where community participation has been introduced showed a deteriorating situation for women* Dr Chapman made suggestions about the constitution of selection committees, the consideration of evidence, the framing of interview questions and the procedures fc^r reaching decisions* She argued that local selection committees must be er'ucated to look analytically at what constituted an effective principal in order to avoid a reliance on traditional images of leaders and stereotypic notions of leadership behaviour* Ms Janice Hash, English/History Co-ordinator at St Andrew's Cathedral School in the Sydney Archdiocese, New South Vales, reported on research she had conducted examining why there were so few laywomen as principals in Catholic secondary schools. The numbers of men and women from the teaching orders capable of filling executive positions bar declined and male lay principals have generally replaced the re.Mgious* Unintentional systemic discrimination included ineligibility because of lack of experience in administratioii, the expectation that women will spend more time at the classroom level and the lack of incidental professional training. Factors attributed to women teachers themselves included lack of aspiration, ambition and self-confidence* Societal attitudes, beliefs and practices were also seen to prejudice women in the promotional stakes. In particular, the Catholic church was perceived as endorsing traditional attitudes towards the role cf women in Australian society. Realistic strategies to lessen the disadvantages for women seeking promotion positions in Catholic educatic.i were suggested* A case study was used by Ms Di Fleming, Vice President of the Australian Council for Educational Administration, to illustrate one administrative response to co-education in relation to the position of women in educational management in independent schools. The co- educational movement has led to many women in single-sex schools losing their management positions to men. In Victoria the principals of all coeducational and single sex schools for boys are men whereas less then 50 per cent of the principals of girls schools are women. The second day of the conference was devoted to State experience, with the emphasis on positive steps being taken to redress the balance for women in management. Ms Kerry Hyland, Equal Employment Opportunity Co-ordinator , New South Wales Department of Education, reported on the Department's Equal Employment Opportunity Management Plan for the Education Teaching Service. The management plan provides a profile of relevant departmental policies, practices and personnel against which changes can be measured. The plan involves a review of personnel practices including recruitment techniques, selection criteria, conditions of service and transfer, and promotion patterns and opportunities. Strategies developed by senior officers in the department will improve personnel practices and the representation of women at various levels in the Education Teaching Service. There were two contributions from Victoria. Ms Veronica Schwarz, Policy and Planning Officer, Education Department of Victoria, reported on her research detailing the basic data on the position of women in the department in 1984, The number of women in senior positions in the teaching service since formal equality was instituted in Victoria in 1972 has actually deteriorated, and the distribution of male and fema}e teachers in 1984 was no better than in 1925 when artificial ratios were created to limit the number of women in danior positions. Ms Schwarz argued that the invisible barriers of attitudes ana social expectations must also be highlighted - made visible ar^d highly unacceptable. She drew attention to the sexual division of labour and the current concept of masculinity as two of the most basic impediments to women's progress. The status of women will only change as the relationships of men and women are radically changed, beginning with focusing equal opportunity programs equally on girls and boys, their attitudes to themselves and each other. Ms Marilyn Jamieson, Senior Education Officer, Education Department of Victoria and Dr Barry Sheehan, Director^ Melbourne College of Advanced Education, examined the common traditional perception of primary teaching as both a female occupational stronghold and, until recent years, a fail-safe route for social mobility against the perspective of gross gender imbalances in favour of men at the senior levels of primary school administration and beyond. The relative absence of women from senior administrative levels was explored in terms of several standard explanatory models. Ms Jamieson and Dr Sheehan argued that primary education could be a ERLC - 5 - 'J 5 particularly vulnerable sector for a major and effective strategic push for redress of structural imbalances in the system, and that the career structure itself should be the subject of critical focus* The Queensland paper, by Dr Ann Scott and Dr Eddie Clarke, Education Officers in the Policy and Information Services Branch of the Queensland Department of Education, was in three parts* Following a brief overview of the history of women in educational management in Queensland, recent developments in the United States were described and a hypothesis developed about the future of teaching and education management as a career path for women* This hypothesis was tested against Queensland statistics to show that assumptions upon which women's career structures and opportunities were based in the past are now inappropriate* Overall career structures within the teaching profession should be re-examined to ensure the quality of education in Australia, as well as to meet the sectional interests of women* Mr John Steinle, Director-General of Education, South Australian Education Department, described structural changes introduced in South Australia to encourage women to seek managerial/promotional posts* He identified distinct and positive differences in the way senior women in South Australia approached and performed their Jobs and anticipated the development of more gender-inclusive models of management which would be far more attractive to aspiring women* Mr Steinle paid particular attention to the desirability of moving out of an era in which discriminatory practices were curtailed into one where differences in the workplace and the social responsibilities that v/omen have traditionally fulfilled are valued* Dr Warren Louden, Deputy Director-General of Education, outlined the dramatic changes over the last two years in policy on gender equity in the curriculum and in staffing in the Education Department of Western Australia* From a curric«^lum point of view a substantial program of system support for schools has been introduced* The aim is to facilitate the development in every school and classroom of an action-oriented policy on gender equity* With respect to staffing policies and practices, the last of the regulations which directly discriminated against women was removed in 1984* A number of other changes * '^ve introduced employment conditions specifically geared to further x. .e interests of women teachers* Further, a program of affirmative action to increase the number of women in promotional positions has begun* Dr Louden provided an overview of these initiatives, pointing out both the successes and the hurdles still to be Jumped* The Tasmanian paper was presented by three women : Beverley Richardson, Deputy Director (Student Services), Jan Edwards, Sen jr Education Officer in the Tasmanian Education Department, and Margaret Lonergan, a Primary Representative from the Tasmanian Teachers Federation* The results of the Tasmanian Teacher Mobility Stvdy were reported and strategies to encourage women to apply for positions were outlined* They described the work in schools to change attitudes of both boys and girls* Dr Barry Price, Senior Director (Resources) , ACT Schools Authority, described the current limited representation of women in the ACT Schools Authority* He outlined the major? ^rriers to improvement as ERIC In reporting lesBons to be learned trom the Commonwealth's Affirmative Action Pilot Program, Ms Maureen Bickley, Consultant, Affirmative Action Resource Unit, Office of the Status of Women, Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet, reviewed the results of the voluntary participation of 28 of Australia's leading companies and three higher education institutions in the program* Participants in the program have undertaken a series of steps designed to introduce affirmative action for women into their organisations and each has pursued an individual program with these steps forming the common framework. The program has made it obvious that increasing women's participation in non-traditional areas requires a concerted effort by both employers and educators. Employers need to ensure that there are no barriers present in their personnel policies and practices* The education sector should accelerate activities designed both to prepare women and girls for non-traditional work and encourage them actively to seek such work* Ms Hester Eisenstein, Assistant Director, Office of Equal Employment Opportunity in Public Employment, New South Wales focused on successful strategies adopted as part of the affirmative action program by the New South Wales Government to increase the numbers of women in management positions. She drew examples from the experience of tertiary education institutions, the education department, techT ical and further education institutions and other public service organisations* In summarising the theme of the conference ^Making Progress' Ms Rosemary Gracanin, Assistant Director of Education, Education Department of South Australia tried to untangle ths ^web of stretched rubber bands' which had become evident during the conference. Participants had />ained a clearer picture of current practice but confirmed that there was still a long way to go, with only 23 per cent of women in principal positions. However, women were beginning to feel secure as part of a national network of able, capable, successful men. At this conference men participated as speakers and full-time members and contributed to the feeling of equality as participants helped each other in a non-competitive way, showing that men and women can function in a co-operative, collaborative manner in overcoming the inequality of women in management positions. She highlighted emerging issues as selection procedures for senior positions, composition of panels, social attitudes towards women in management, the changing role of the manager, personal career planning and research. Papers delivered at the conference are included in the main body of the report and the background of contributors is listed in Appendix 7. R^ecommendations Recommendations developed in workshops were presented during the closing plenary session of the conference (Appendix 1). The response of workshops was overwhelming. Most recommendations were based on principles enunciated throughout the conference: namely, the fundamental right of women and men to be equally responsible for the management of schools and education systems; equitable representation of women and men in policy formulation and decision making in schools and education systems; improved access to professional development in ERIC - 8 - management which may entail special provision for women and improved information collection and dissemination relating to educational management. Thfc recommendations were wide ranging, covering policy and programs, funding, structure, statistics, personnel, professional development and research and were directed to the Australian College of Education, the Commonwealth Schools Commission, the Office of the Status of Vomen, Commonwealth and State Departments, government and non-government education systems, and authorities, teachers' unions and participants. The recommendations were subsequently forwarded to all participants for endorsement. Since the conference the Council of the Australian College of Education and the ACT Schools Authority have approved the publication of the report and referred recommendations to relevant people, authorities and organisations. f^tate action groups have met to continue the momentum beyond the conference. Progress has been made in the area of women in educational management but that progress is still alarmingly slow and more needs to be done. The Canberra conference was a fruitful third stage of the Australian College of Education's national assessment of the participation of women in educational management. In 1986 the College hopes to sponsor a fourth conference which will focus on some of the issues raised since 1983* In closing the conference Shirley Randell referred again to the Nairobi Non~Gover nment Organisations Forum and United Nations Conference to mark the end of the UN Decade for Women on Equality, Development and Peace. A report of these meetings was given at the conference dinner by Dr Gail Radford, Director of the Equal Employment Opportunity Bureau, Commonwealth Public Service Board and Salamo Fulivai, a Tongan participant. A major outcome of the UN meetings had been an acknowledgment that the struggle of women for change cannot be isolated from the struggle of other marginalised groups; blacks, the poor and oppressed. And indeed women's struggle for change cannot be successful without the support of men. Women especially need to be united in their efforts to change the world, even though there may be diversity in those efforts, working non-violently , patiently, learning from each other how to change the unjust structures of society. Women need to act, to speak up, to assert themselves at home, at work and in the community. This struggle for change is one for strong, sensitive women to engage in, and is delightfully captured Marge Piercy's poem For strong women. A strong woman is a woman who is straining. A strong woman xS a woman standing on tiptoe and lifting a barbell while trying to eing Boris Godunov. A strong woman is a woman at work cleaning out the cesspool of the ages, and while she shovels, shr. talks about how she doesn't mind crying, it opens the ducts of the eyes, and throwing up develops the stomach muscles, and she goes on shoveling with tears in her nose. ERLC A strong woman is a woman in whose head a voice is repeating, I told you so, ugly, bad girls, bitch, nag, shrill, witch, ballbuster, nobody will ever love you back, why aren't you feminine, why aren't you soft, why aren't you quiet, why aren't you dead? A strong woman is a wouan determined to do something others are determined not be done. She is pushing up on the bottom of a lead coffin lid. She is trying to raise a manhole cover with her head, she is trying to butt her way through a steel wall. Her head hurts. People waiting for the hole to be made say, hurry, you're so strong. A strong woman is a woman bleeding inside. A strong woman is a woman making herself strong every morning while her teeth looEen and her back throbs. Every baby, a tooth, midwives used to say, and now every battle a scar. A strong woman is a mass of scar tissue that aches when it rains and wounds that bleed when you bump them and memories that get up in the night and pace in boots to and fro. A strong woman is a woman who craves love like oxygen or she turns blue choking. A strong woman is a woman who loves strongly and weepB strongly and is strongly terrified and has strong needs. A strong woman is strong in words, in action, in connection in feeling; she iiS not strong as a stone but as a wolf suckling her /oung. Strength is not in her, but she enacts it as the wind fills a sail. What comforts her is others loving her equally for the strength and for the weakness from which it issues, lightning fiom a cloud. Lightning stuns. In rain, the clouds dispeise. Only water of connection remains, flowing through us. Strong is what we make each other. Until we are all strong together, a strong woman is a woman strongly afraid. Marge Piercy, The Moon is Ajways Female ERIC - 10 THE IMPERATIVES FOR CHAl^GE Ros Kelly Introduction This is the third conference that the Australian College of Education has conducted on women in educational management in Australia. The Australian College of Education ie to be conunended for organising this serie^3 of conferences and for the work it has done in raising debate about the issues relating to women in education. It is pleasing that the Australian Capital Territory Schools Authority is co-operating with the College in sponsoring this particular conference which will concentratc3 on the needs of women to obtain management positions in primary and secondary education, both in schoolu and systems throu.^hout Australia. The serious imbalance that exists in the relative positions of women and men across the whole spectre of education in Australia is well known. It is enough to look at the statistics for school principals. While almost 60 per cent of teachers in Australia are women, 76 per cent of school principals are men. And rather than improving, this situation is tending to deteriorate as single-sex schools become coeducational and women principals are replaced by men. Rectifying Inequalities The first imperative for change then must be to rectify the obvious inequalities that exist iu education systems and introduce measures to overcome them. Many reasons have been put forward in the past to explain the enormous imbalance that exists between the number of women employed in our schools and the number that occupy senior adminis ' -ati ve or management positions. The situation of men in the higher administrative posts and women in the lower sections of the hierarchy persists not only in the schools but in the school systems as well. Women have been accused of not wanting promotion, not being as mobile as men and not being as qualified as men. Women teachers it has been said, have not sought promotion because of their outside family responsibilities and because they have regarded their husband's careers as more important. While there may have been some elements of truth for some women in these allegations in the past, recent research, particularly that carried out by Dr Shirley Sampson, has shown that there is very little basis for these assumptions today. The structures and attitudes within the education organisation should be examined more closely, especially the tired old myths and attitudes about women's capabilities which have handicapped women across the full breadth of society. Women are perceived as being subordinate and dependent with no administrative potential. Consequently their participation in the school system has been largely confined to the humanities and junior primary levels. Men, on the other hand, are seen as the leaders, the administrators and the teachers of mathematics and science. As a result of these attitude'i, when the out-of-classroom activities are allocated in pchoola, all too frequently the male teachers are given the a.'.mini8t fat ive and organisational tasks and women are left with the caring and supportive roles. This situation persists In spite of the fact that in schools with largely female staff, wosinn havo demonstrated th^ir ability to perform competently the range of duties and tasks required in school organisation and administration. Their non-participation in those same activities when there are male teachers on the staff indicates some deliberate decision making and perceptions about the relative abilities of men and women teachers. The rerult of this selective allocation of tasks i& that while women obviously have the ability to undertake administrative tasks, they are not given the opportunity to gain experience in this area and are therefore seriously hampered in the promotion stakes. Vomen are also disadvantaged when seniority is a major consideration for promotion. Many women take breaks in their careers of up to tGn years to devote themselves to child bearing and raising. Are thsse years of caring and relating to children and educating them outside the fi.rmal structures of no value?. If we limit the opportunities for women in our systems and schools we are denying those systems and schools of a pool of talent which could be tapped to make the best use of the hum&n resources available to them. Our second imperative must be to encourage organisations to utilise all the human resources available to them in an efficient and effective way. Utilising Human Resources The commonwealth government is committed to encouraging policies which enable women who wish to ent(^r the labour force to participate fully in employment. In 19S4, the government enacted the Sex Discrimination Act. In doing so i' was i^cognised that, as important as anti-discrimination policies are, they cannot by themselves improve women's position in the labour market or totally open up a greater range of Jobs to women. Nor can the> ensure *"hat women can compete on equal terms with men for protriotion. For these reasons additional measures are required to enable women to improve their labour market prospects . In June 1984 the Prime h*. ister tabled in Parliament a policy discussion paper on affirmative action for women. One of the proposals arising from this paper was the setting up of the Affirmative Action Pilot Program involving twenty-ei^ht of Australia's leading private sector compani es and three hi gher education institutions. There have been a^ least two outcomes of the pilot program, which are relevant for this conference. Firstly, the pilot has produced tangible results in terms of revised recruitment advertising which encourages girls and women to apply for the full range of Jobs available. Already some companies ar? reporting more applications from women. Data bases have been established by individual organisations to identify women's current ?2 - 12 - position in their labour force and perfeonnel policies and practices have been reviewed to eliminate any discriminatory practices. Career counselling and special training programs for women have been established or extendea. Women's networks have developed and will maintain the momentum created by the pilot program. As well unions are beginning to take a more active role both Ki Lhin their own organisations and in preparing their members for an active role with employers on affirmative action isFues. These are all real improvements for women workers. Secondly, the pilot program was essentially a matter of accelerating labour market processes. Changes which have occurred in patterns of women's employment have been far too slow. These organisations accelerated their activities and at their final meeting in Canberra on 28 June 1985 they called on the education ticcto'* to accelerate its activities - to play its role in equipping and encouraging girls to apply for the non-traditional Jobs now open to them - to challenge more vigorously the concept of women's Jobs and men's Jobs* Each sector has had the excuse that the other was not initiating change; the schools blaming the employers and the employers blaming the schools. And we cannot deny that our education system is responsible for many of the attitudes that permeate our society. It may not have initiated them but it has certainly r3inforced the status quo rather than been an agent of reform. Australia can only be enhanced by providing the groups within society with the opportunity to work to their full abilities and extend their capabilities. The third imperative for change must be to improve Australia as a place to live and work by acknowledging the skills and abilities of all the components of its population. A society which is stratified and role-confined is '"estricted in its ability to be dynamic and f orwa. d thinking. This is particularly important in the education system which plays such a significant role in framing the values and attitudes of young people. Acknowledging Skills and Abilities The fact that women are substantially under-represented in executive positions in schools has farreachlng consequences for boys' and girls' attitudes. Teachers provide models of sex-appropriate behaviour for their students. What has happened in the past is that young women aspired to be classroom teachers and no more because that was the female role in education with which they were most familiar. Mathematics and science teachers tended to be male and so reinforced the idea that these subjects were not female ones. Girls' aspirations and choices have been shown to be closely related to messages in the media and school materials and in traditional school arrangements. School curricula have tended to reinforce girls' perceptions of themselves as subordinates to, and less competent than, boys and their values and opinions as less important than those of males. A non-sexist approach should permeate the whole curriculum with emphasis on skills and understanding which are valuable to both girls and boys. Influences which limit girls' potential also limit their ability to contribute to the life of the nation. Government Action The commonwealth government has taken a number of initiatives to diversify and expand girls' educational skills and experiences. It recognises that this is essential to increasing the numbers of qualified women able to take advantage of affirmative action programs in employment. Since becoming Minister for Education, Senator Susan Ryan haa taken steps to ensure that the needs of women and girls have been catered for under al] the commonwealth's programs in education at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels. She has requested that all portf'^li agencies include the names of women in panels of names of persons submitted for her consideration for appointments within the portfolio* This has resulted in a significant increase in the number of women appointed to the education commissions and other senior appointments, including the secretary of her department, since 1983. The ACT Situation The ACT Schools Authority endorsed an Equal Opportunity Policy in September 1984. This policy gives a commitment to non-discriminatory policies and practices as well as undertaking to monitor the effects of these and to introduce affirmative action programs. However, in the ACT there are particular problems promoting women to promotional positions in our school system because of the size of the system. When the ACT school system was first created with additional Band 3 positions, those with Band 2 qualifications had the opportunity to move quickly. Also some teachers stayed with the New South Wales system and many Band 4 positions became vacant. However, most of the people appointed in 1974 are still in those positions and most are men. In fact, these days there is very little movement in the system. Many women have Band 3 eligibility but there are no positions for them to move to. An example, is a friend of mine: she has had 25 years teaching experience and in 1974 was a Band 2 when the change occurred. In 1977 she was an acting Band 3 but in 1985 is still a Band 2. She has applied for five Band 3 positions and has had two on higher duties (Acting Band 3) but still no substantive position. This is a fundamental problem which must be addressed if women are to obtain equality in our school system and the question must be addressed because the character of each school in the ACT is very much determined by the principals of the school. That is not to say that all male principals are incompetent, rather that there should be role models for women in schools and colleges in the top positions and opportunities for good women teachers to get through the system. Concluaion In this conference one of the issues which should oe examined is the question of establishing all~firl classes in mathematics and science. Overseas research has indicated that even with teachers most sensitive to the needs of girls, the majority of face-to-face teachers' time in mixed classes goes to the demanding boys, especially at the high school level. This conference provides the opportunity to explore the initiatives that each state and territory has been undertaking and to clarify ideas about what progress has been made, what more can be done and how it can best be done. The results will be of considerable interest to the commonwealth government. ERIC 0 - 15 - THE CURRENT SITUATION FOR WOMEN IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION WOMEN .TEACHERS. AND PROMOTION; A SEARCH FOR SOME EXPLANATIONS Shirley Sampson Introduct ion During third term 1984 with the help of all teacher unions affiliated with the Australian Teachers' Federation, and with financial assistance from Monash University, a questionnaire was sent to a J per cent sample of union members in schools in each state and territory. Its purpose was to seek information from women and men concerning experiences, motivations and activities related to promotion within the public teaching services in which they worked. Without follow-up contact replies were received from 2,380 teachers a response rate of 55 per cent of whom 61 per cent were ferrale and 39 per cent male. This paper reports findings from that study. Survey Response Teachers who replied to the questionnaire used in this study clearly were those who were concerned or involved in issues to do with promotion and no further effort was made to secure a larger sample. This group may not be adequately representative of those women and men for whom promotion is entirely irrelevant but they represent an adequate sample of teacher union members from every state as shown in Table 1. TABLE I SURVEY RESPONSES FROM EACH STATE Quest iopnai res Repl ies Sent Received as a percentage as a percentage New South Wales 28.57 29.91 Northern Territory 1,29 1.38 Australian Capital Territory 2.07 2.^*7 Victoria 29.71 29.53 South Australia 8.57 8.40 Western Australia 8.20 10.97 Queensland 15.14 13.15 Tasmania 3.71 4,20 Total sample: 100 per cent = 140,000 100 per cent ^ 2,380 Evidence from all states in Australia shows that women teachers are still at, or close to, the bottom of all education employment hierarchies. Since th:s is their situation and since so many legal barriers have heen removed which previously blocked their upward career paths, it could be expected that there would now be large numbers of talented women applying for promotion. This is not the rase . ERIC - 16 ~ Whereas 46 per cent of male respondents in this study had applied for promotion in the last five years, only 24 per cent of women had done 80. Of these, over 50 per cent were between the ages of 30 and 39 years, in fact over 70 per cent were under the age of 40* Thus it is younger women who now form the bulk of applicants. More teachers (37 per cent female l .d 48 per cent male) had applied for promotion within the school in which they were teaching. While such wi thi n-school appointments could be used as valuable experience they are generally not permanent and would not secure a footing on the career hierarchy of any departmental workforce. In this survey a minority of respondents clearly rejected the idea of promotion altogether (about 9 per cent) but among those who expected to reach a higher level in the future women aspired less highly than men. Forty-two per cent expected to remain as class teachers compared with 15 per cent of men. Thirty-two per cent of women and 31 per cent of men aimed to become senior mistress or master but 44 per cent of men and only 17 per cent of women dought principalships or work as a central or regional office administrator. Reponses reported here show that a much smaller proportion of women than men are seeking promotion of any kind and reasons were sought to explain this sex difference. Respondents were asked to describe the importance to them of a number of reasons commonly given ^or seeking or not seeking promotion. Reasons for Seeking Promotion On matters related to their professional lives, men and women showed somewhat similar levels of motivation. The challenge of more responsibility and the opportunity to influence the system, the organisation of schools or the curriculum were important or very important to over 60 per cent of all female and male respondents and the differences in responses of each sex were small and not significant (ns). A slightly greater proportion of female than male respondents (44 per cent female and 39 per cent male, ns) were interested in promotion because they were dissatisfied with their present position or because they wanted a change of subject or particular responsibility (52 per cent female and 49 per cent male, ns). Much more important was resistance by women to getting right out of the classroom as 63 per cent (of 46 per cent men) said that an important reason for not applying for promotion was that they would have less teaching ?8 ERIC - 17 - time with pupils (p<0. 001)1. So, although more than half of all women seek responsibility or a change in their present position they do not want to lose touch with their students. This finding could well explain some of women's reluctance to apply for oromotion compared with men, for whom this was not such an important factor. Financial reward. Salary is a more important influence for men than women both as a reason for applying for promotion (71 per cent male and 62 per cent female) and as a reason for not applying. Sixty per cent male and 48 per cent female named 'lack of financial incentive' as important or very important. Sex differences were significant for all responses but most significant among those indicating that an increase in salary was a very important reason for seeking promotion (31 per cent male and 21 per cent female, p<0.001). Despite these findings it is obvious that a majority of women teachers are interested in salary as a reason for proniotion (62 per cent) thus, this factor does not explain why they are not applying as often as men. Family related reasons for not seeking promotion. Much greater differences between men's and women's motivation towards promotion emerged when family related factors were considered. Although more men had children living in the same household (62 per cent male but only 38 per cent female) women were much more likely to be solely responsible for a child for more than four hours per day(65 per cent of women who had children living in the household compared with 28 per cent of men, p<0.0001). Also, although there were 62 per cent of women who had no children living in the household, women teachers across all age groups did much mere housework of various kinds than men (88 per cent female and 65 per cent male performed three or more tasks for themselves as well as others, p<0.001). The second shift. In line w*'h these family responsibilities, women, far more often than men, named as reacons for not seeking promotion that they felt unable to cope with the extra demands and responsibilities (37 per cent female and 20 per cent male, p<0.0001); that they were reluctant to devote the necesseary time to extra responsibilities (56 per cent female and 39 per cent male, p<0.0001); that they perceived a conflict of after-school commitments and domestic responsibilities (63 per cent female and 52 per cent male, p<0.01). Clearly these factors illustrate a most important reason why many women do not seek promotion. If it is important to incorporate women's as well as men's experience into decision making within our schools and systems the burden of women's family responsibilities must be faced squarely. Women's family ties have also been used to explain their reluctance to apply widely for more senior positions and may help to explain why more women are applying for positions within schools than for promotion generally. Certainly women, more often than men, gave their partner's career as an important reason for their unwillingness to seek promotion (54 per 1. All statistical tfsts of significance used in this paper are chi- squared tests. ERIC cent female and 40 per cent male, p<0.001). However, when asked whether their own career was less, equally or more important to the household than their partner's, 61 per cent of women replied that their own career was equally or more important (these responses were given by 67 per cent of men). nobility for promotion . In addition, 38 per cent of women (though more men, as might be expected, 55 per cent) replied that they would be prepared to take a Job which necessitated moving and a chonge of job for their partner. From findings such as these it can hardly be alleged that large numbers of women are not taking their careers seriously. This factor (lack of mobility) is no longer quite such an important factor as it may have been in times past for women. Men's careers, too, are now influenced by that of their partner. Forty per cent of male respondents named their partner's career as equally important and 45 per cent replied that they would not take an appointment which meant a change of job for their spouse. Men are not so mobile now. These findings help to explain a rather unexpected finding Indicating men's reduced mobility. Evidence from the questionnaire showed that of men who had applied for promotion in the last five years, 89 per cent had applied for less than five positions (compared with 95 per cent of women). It is still true that a greater proportion of men were more mobile than women, for 6.6 per cent of men had applied for twenty or more positions within 5 years (compared with only 2 per cent of women). Nevertheless, a large number of men now appear to be less than completely mobile. Current sex differences in mobility cannot explain the present position of women relative to men in educational hierarchies, though they may explain past patterns of promotion. In reviewing these findings on the influence of family factors on promotion it is obvious that more women are affected by these responsibilities than men. In the past this issue has been shelved by educational system authorit^?s as the individual's responsibility. But it is not for women alone to face unpalatable choices between work and family tasks. If society as a whole is convinced that women, who comprise nearly 60 per cent of all teachers, have a wealth of commitment and experience to contribute to the effective organisation of schooling, it behoves administrators themselves to examine critically the male advantage derived from present forms of organisation (or lack of it as in the case, for example, of child care provision and job sharing). Also to be examined are the assumptions inherent in the present arrangements about men's lack of involvement with their own families. Are such men the best administrators for schools and schooling systems? Other reasons Finally, among the reasons given by individual men and women for not applying for promotion were two which require much more extensive investigation because they were so highly significant or so widely supported. The first relates to women's perception that they larked experience, a reason advanced for not seeking promotion by 45 per cent 19 of women compared with only 28 per cent of men(p<0,0001 ) . The second concerns perceptions of discrimination on likely outcomes of promotion applications and will be discussed in a following section. Women^s Qualifications and Experience In order to investigate whether it is a fact that women teachers lack experience in relation to men, a number of findings which were intended to explore evidence of equal competence will now be presented. In this research, questions were asked concerning sex differences in initial and further qualifications, in-service involvement, early experiences of organisational/administrative tasks as beginning teachers, familiarity with a range of leadership tasks, as well as perceptions of support or lack of it from significant others, including those at home and in the school system. Qualifications Women are not initially less qualified than men to enter teaching, in fact many more women than men proportionally had three years or more of training (73 per cent female and 64 per cent male, p<0,01). In addition, 32 per cent of women and 33 per cent of men had degrees or degrees with diplomas at the start of their teaching careers. It is in improving their qualifications that men secured some advantage. Not only had they increased their initial qualifications more frequently (62 per cent male and 53 per cent female, p<0,01) but also they had done so at a more advanced level. Seventeen per cent of men gaining qualifications after entry to teaching had obtained a second or highe»~ degree compv-^red with only 10 per cent of women and this was a highly significant sex difference (p<0,0001). It cannot be irguti that pieces of paper automatically improve the quality of teaching or administrative capacity or practice but mere possession of further qualifications indicates effort to continue learning and to update skills, Th'.s must remain a significant factor in any promotion sy.item based on merit. However, data from this study show that over aalf of ail female teachers have added further qualifications since entering the service so that many more women than now do so could apply for promotion equally on this basis with men. The fact that more women do not apply is an indication of their understanding that qualifications are not the only essential prerequisites for the upwardly mobile teacher in state education systems. Inservice activities The question of administrative studies was not asked in relation to gaining further qualifications. But specific information was sought about participation in and the types of inservice activities in which teachers had been involved. Men undertook more of this re- training (80 per cent male, 74 per cent female) and were significantly more likely to have had two days or more of such activity in areas related to administration (alone or in combination with other topics) such as running a department, training for senior management or timetabling (33 per cent male compared with 18 per cent female, p<0,0001). Women were more involved than men in curriculum and ERIC - 20 -^^ pastoral care activities but these differences were not as significant. Predictably, perhaps, in view of common stereotypes, of those taking part in inservice men were significantly more involved with computer activities (31 per cent of men compared with only 22 per cent of women, p<0.01). T ABLE 2 PARTICIPATION IN INSERVICE ACTIVITIES Type of activity2 Percentage of those doing any inservice activity who were Females as a peicentage Males as a percentage Administrat ion 17.8 33.1 Pastoral Care 35.5 30.5 Computers 22.1 30.7 Curriculum 79.3 74.4 Other (TUTA) .46 .26 Total No. of Persons 1073 744 percentage of all respondents (by sex) who had undertaken 73.8 80.1 inservice in last 5 years The sex differences in participation and type of inservice activity undertaken by women and men may hypo t he t ica 1 ly be an indication of either the cause or the result of the position in the promotional hierarchy of each sex. Women may not be interested in administrative inservice or they may be prevented from attending an inservice activity of their choice more often than men since fewer of them are in control within schools. In this study, only 7 per cent of female respondents (3 per cen*- of males) gave 'opposition of a superior' as their reason for being unable to undertake such activity. Women much more often than i^en were prevented from attending by reason of family commitments (13 per cent female and 3 per cent male, p<0.001). More women indicated that they had wanted to attend some form of inservice (33 per cent female and 23 per cent male) but had been unable to do so for reasons such as those above as well as distance, residential requirements, teaching commitments and lack of relief. An overview of inservice participation as an indicator of training or preparation for proniotion into administrative levels of the education system reveals one further reason why women might not apply for promotion pb often as men? they appear to undertake less training 2. 1817 respondents had undertaken two days or more of inservice training in the last five years, however many had been involved in more than one type of activity. 32 ERIC - 21 - for administrative posts. This may be the consequence of post hoc training - that is, the people who are trained at administration inservice activities have already been appointed as administrators of one kind or another. Alternatively it may be that women do not choose to undertake such activities or that thev do not receive notice of them or that they are not often encouraged to attend. This research did not provide evidence which would enable a more definitive analysis to be undertaken. However, some indication of past departmental practices encouraging women into administration can be gauged from the following section relating to sex differences in tasks allocated to beginning teachers. Apprenticeship experiences Teachers were asked whether in their first five years of teaching they had ever been allocated organisational or administrative tasks of any kind. Only 57 per cent of females replied in the affirmative compared with 73 per cent of males (p<0.0001). Vhen the nature of these tasks was examined, clear differences in 'apprenticeship' experiences were revealed. It was found that these women teachers, far more often than the men had been allocated work to do with children or teaching and the library. This research revealed that of all respondents 61 per cent of male teachers had experience of organisational or administrative tasks in their first five years of teaching compared with only 45 per cent of women teachers (p<0.0001). It is clear that an important factor in women teachers' reluctance to apply for promotion compared with men could be firstly, lack of early apprenticeship to organisational or administrative tasks and secondly, the resulting legitimation of stereolvped perceptions concerning appropriate roles for women and men in schools. This was a process which continued long after the first years uf teaching, as other evidence showed. As every teacher is aware, there are multitudes of tasks within schools which are shared around among staff, more or less often. Even though many teachers have senior appointments entitling them to perform up-front or leadership tasks, assistant level staff are asked to carry out these duties from time to time. A selection of experiences of this kind were listed in this study and teachers were asked whether they had ever carried out such duties and whether the task had been by choice or by allocation. It is apparent from findings presented in Table 3 that women have had fewer opportunities than men to try themselves at any of these every day organisational activities. Those who had performed such tasks had also been allocated these duties by others within the school less often than men. task had been by choice or by allocation. ERLC TABLE 3 SCHOOL TASKS EVER PERFORMED Have you ever taken major responsibility for any of the following tasks in schools in which you have taught? Where response is Yes, was this by choice or allocation? Task I Ytf PmcI* (n«1234) Task allocattd Orfaniutioa of Mjor sdwoi •ctivitin facb «f sports/opM dtjf, partntf aiglitf Arr«o|tMat of stodtnt CMpi or tr«Ttl 61.6 S9.2 19.9 9.7 Z Yes Halt Task Levtl of allocatod sifDificuct 78.2 22.8 81.7 15.3 p<0.0001 p<0.0001 37.6 12.3 60.9 15.9 p<0.0001 LMdini/coBTtaiai coMltttt oa .covrti carricoloi 31.8 11.8 58.0 17.7 p<0.0001 .stoloBt discipliat 20.1 7.2 40.9 15.6 p<0.0001 .pastoral cart 20.7 5.6 34.9 10.3 p<0.0001 Drafing-np tiaitabl* 29.8 13.8 S0.5 21.0 p<0.0001 Bvnnini a school assaibly 51.2 30.7 69.5 31.8 p<0.0001 When only responses from assistant level teachers are Considered emerges. Assistant level men were significantly more likely to have performed all these tasks. Differences ranged from 18 per cent fewer women who had ever organised a student camp or travel to 4.5 per cent fewer who had ever convened a pastoral care committee (which was the smallest sex difference among these responses). If it is considered that some women who are at assistant level are likely to be highly experienced while a greater proportion of men are likely to be younger, considering men's present promotion rates, the sex differences in experience offered tc this lowest level but most diverse group of teachers become even more blatantly one- ERIC 23 - Results reported here support earlier evidence that young women teachers are not asked to perform administrative tasks as often as young men, and that women are stereotyped as 'not administration material'. This was a comment frequently made by both men and women which will be discussed in a following section of this paper* In concluding this discussion on experience therefore it must be accepted that when 45 per cent women gave 'lack of experience' as a reason for not applying for promotion, they may have been perfectly coriect. When the proportion of women compared with men who have had the opportunity to try themselves out at administrative tasks is examined, it is clear that individual women would not often have the experience of seeing other women do well at such tasks, nor to try them for themselves to develop their own sense of competence by doing, as men do* This is an aspect of the findings of this study which clearly warrants consideration and action within departments of education, at conferences of principals and administrative staff, especially with regard to affirmative action programs* Sense of Competence For a majority of both women and men teachers, the feeling that they could do a senior Job better than others was an important or very important reason for applying for promotion (53 per cent female and 60 per cent male, ns)* Sex differences were significant only among those who saw this as a very important motivation (16 per cent female and 22 per cent male, p<0*01)* A related finding occurred in response to an attitude question asking whether respondents felt they were excellent, as good as the general run, not particularly good or did not know how to rate themselves on performance of administrative tasks in schools* Twenty-five per cent of males rated themselves as 'excellent' compared with 18 per cent of females (p<0*001)* These exercises in self assessment in comparison with others reveal commonly found sex differences in estimation (Macoby and Jacklin, 1974)* However, in view of the evidence given above concerning actual experiences allowed to them, women's sense of competence must be seen as not far below that of men* Perceptions of encouragement Throughout their lives women do not receive the kind of social 'messages' which men do, encouraging them to aspire to the top, in particular to managing or controlling other people, or that it is appropriate for them to be leaders of people* Many ime^eB relating to c^tstanding women are negative or threatening ones (Horner, 1969; Leder, 1984). Respondents were asked whether certain officers with whom they would have had contact in schools had ever invited or encouraged them 0 - 24 - to apply for promotion. Sex differences were highly significant. Inspectors, superintendents or other departmental officers had encouraged 36 pf.r cent of males to ut yourself on the line'. Realistically assess your value. Recognise that you deserve the job as much as any one else of comparable experience and qualification. Come to know yourself and recognise your strengths and weaknesses. If you have weaKnesses confront them and learn to handle them constructively. Carefully look at your career path. Ide-itify a goal which you would like to attain, a dream you would wish to fulfill. Lecrn how others have attained that goal and identify the paths which can be followed to its attainment. Do not be embarrassed about recognising and admitting to your strengths. Let people know you are an 'able' person. Build it into their set of expectations about you. Build up their confidence in you. Do not 8h> away from addressing difficult issues. ERLC n3 - 42 - Develop opinions, positions and moat importantly, develop a personal philosophy, your vision for education. Become the initiator rather than the support person. Short Term Preparation Carefully prepare a written application. Read the school profile and the job advertisement. Contact and if possible visit the school and obtain as much additional information about the school, the position and the community as is possible. Speak informally with those who may be familiar with various aspects of the school and its community. In your letter of application: state your case in clear, succinct language that will be readily understood by the professional educators and the lay person; specifically address your application to the neeu^ the school and the major areas of responsibility as detailed in the school profile and the job description; state clearly the fundamental tenets of your educational phi losophy ; ensure that within your application letter you effectively display the ^vision' you have for the school; refer to actual behaviours/accompl ishments which provide evidence that you do indeed K->ssess the relevant skills and experience; provide substantiating evidence for your claims. In most instances this evidence can be included as appendices to your application. Selecting confidential referees: Contained within your letter of application, either as an appended list or within the body of the letter itself, will be the details of your 'confidential' referees. Your choice of confidential referees will be a major factor in determining the success or failure of your application. Choose them with care. Ensure that your confidential referees are men or women who will be respected and considered credible by the members cf the selection committee. Select referees who will be considered by members of the selection committee to be 'honest and frank'. Select referees who will be enthusiastic in their support for your application* This can be guaranteed to a greater extent if you provide prospective referees with substantial information about the school and the position* Stress to your confidential referees the necessity for them to address their comments to the specific requirements of the school ana the position and to any specific issues raised by the selection committee* They should validate your claims of experience and expertise* Prior to Interview: Identify potential problem areas; the areas where selectors may hold potentially discriminatory attitudes towards women. Be well prepared to answer questions on discipline, your ability to take pressure, the breadth of your experience, your involvement in the wider commu,iity, your preparedness to devote time and energy to the school, your personal and professional priorities, your ability to relate to others, especially to the men who are likely to constitute a sizeable proportion of your staff and your governing body. At the Interview. Ask for feedback from the committee: What attracted this committee to my application? Would the committee have any misgivings about appointing me? Show that this is important and that you are very serious ;ibout being appointed. Present yourself with conviction. Avoid those aspects of 'fem;=ile' language patterns whirh reflect uncertainty. Say things in a positive way, instead of 'I would hope to,..' say 'I would do..,' Learn to turn everything to your advantage. If the interviewer detects a weakness in your application or preparation do not buckle under. Lead the discussion along bo a Dositive resolution. Display your ^vision' for education anr for the future of the school. Take charge of yourself and the interview. Show you are ^master of your world'. References Baltzell, Catherine and Dentler, Robert A, (1983) Selecting American School Principals^ Research Report. National Institute of Education. Washington D.C. Chapman, Judith D. ( 1984) A Descriptive Profile of Australian School Principals. Commonwealth Schools Commission, Canberra, Chapman, Judith D, ( 1984) The Selection and Appointment of Australian School Principals. Commonwealth Schools Commission, Canberra, Chapman, Judith D, ( 1985) School Council Involvement in the Selection of Admini strators. The Institute of Educational Admin is t rat ion, Melbourne, Victoria, Chapman, Judith D, (1985) The Selection of School Administrators. Procedures and Practices . The Institute of Educational Administration, Melbourne, Victoria, 1985, Morgan, C, Hall, Valerie and McKay, Hugh, (1983) The Selection of Secondary School Headteachers. Open University Press, London, .^6 LAY WOMEN AS PRINCIPALS IN CAt^HOLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS? Janice Nash Introduction Within the different Australian education systems, the principalship is dominated by men. Studies from the United States of America, Canada, Great Britain and New Zealand point to the existence of the same situation in their schools. Until recently Catholic schools in this country were not characterised by such an imbalance. However, the decline in the number of men and women from the teaching orders who are capable of filling executive positions has necessitated the appointment of lay principals. These principals are mostly men. Although this trend conforms with the general pattern, it requires closer scrutiny because the under-r ep r es en t a t i on of women in the principalship is now occurring in a system where traditionally women have held that position in approximately the same proportion as men. Furthermore, women seeking promotion to the principalfihip in that system are not disadvantaged to the same extent as wo»Ten in Australian government schools by a formal promotion structure which places emphasis on seniority and which has set criteria for eligibility to each level or list position in the hierarchy. Failure to cpply for promotion certainly provides a simple explanation for the situation. A recent study in Victoria showed that in a questionnaire involving 349 women respondents only 9 (or 2.6 per cent) had ever applied for a secondary principalship in a Catholic school. The head personnel officer in the Sydney Archdiocese likewise indicated the general failure of women to apply for either the deputy principal or principal positions. But this response of failure to apply only prompts further questions: What are the factors or barriers confronting women in Catholic secondary schools which might explain their under-representat ion as principals? Are these factors similar to those in other systems? Are theie factors related specifically to the Catholic system? Although the degree of influence appears to vary, the factors or barriers which offer an explanation for the situation are basically the same as those which are found in other education systems. Further, they can be categorised into three groups: those factors which arise from indirect institutional discrimination; those factors which are attributable to women teachers themselves; and those factors incorporating attitudes or beliefs, conscious or unconsc ious , leading to uni-^tentional, direct discrimination. Indirect Syst emic D l ccr in ina t ion The factors which emerge in the category of indirect, systemic discrimation are more closely related to the nature of the ERIC - ^7 Catholic education system than those factors in other areas. The following list identifies only the most obvious ones. Women are ineligible through lack of administrative experience. The continuing presence of religious in the positions of principal and deputy principal hinders both men and women. The tendency is for women to sten as ^naturally' dependent on men, women are frankly exploited and their potential wasted. What is needed is a personal revolution in our relationships with each other, starting with ourselves and our relationship with our own partners if we have them. Women who care about the position of women need to take a firm ptand with male partners in insisting on equally shared responsibilities couplea v.ith respect and concern for each other's ^.ai f.fers . Men who are concernod have initially the much more aifficult Icisks of aji/ing up sevnral privileges and comforts, of working icngar hours and rurlailir.g certain freedoms. It will take a great deal of f ai r-mi'^idedness for men to change. Jt has been a comfortable arrangemenl for them. Conference participants, male and female, could undertake to begin this ^personal revolution' and change the position of women in their perirenal 3ives. Conclusio n The major purpose in this paper is to draw attention to what may be two of the most basic impediments to women's progress: the sexual division of labour which takes its cue from the family scene and colours the attitudes of both men and women to concepts of men's work and women's work; ER|c - 65 - the current concept of masculinity which requires an opposite to give it definition. Each of these issues should be tackled at a personal level - in our social relationships, in our teaching young people and in our own careers - and we should use the understandirg of the underlying issues to inform our strategies at system level. This is not to deny the importance of systemic and structural change which other speakers have discussed. The personal and systemic should be simultaneous, Ths* current changes in the Victorian Education Department which I have outlined provide excellent examples of possible structural strategies. In order to aevelop the ideas, contribute to change and maintain the impetus of this conference, participants in state groups should maintain contact with each other within states and among states. Remember that the riddle at the beginning of this paper is still incomprehensible to many people - try it on a few colleagues. The sexual division of labour - men's work/women's work - is alive and well. That is the basic concept which should be changed. Women can and should be principals and major decision makers ,,, and senior administrators ,,, and Directors- General, And it is time they were! CH ANGING THE POSITION OF WOMEN IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF THE VICTORIAN EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Marilyn Jatnieson and Barry Sheehan Bac kground Many of the problems in education in Victoria in the 1980s have clear roots in a forty-year history of crisis management. The demographic explosion together with tho explosion of expectations in the wake of the Second World War took everyone by surprise and led to enormous problems in the education sector. The rapid increase in the birth rate after 1945 and the admittance of five year olds to Victcrian primary schools from 1946, together with the impact of Australia's immigration policies in the 1950s, compounded the legacy of severe economies in the 1930s and wartime labour shortages. Despite the building of an average of 15 new primary schools each year and the addition of over 17000 new classrooms beyond that, between 1950 and 1970, classrooms were greatly overcrowded until well into the 1960s. Enrolments more than doubled from 186,000 in 1950 to 375,000 in 1972. (Blake, 1973:392) Between 1945 and 1960 it was difficult to recruit the number of teachers needed. Had it not bt?en for the employment of temporary teachers hundreds of primary "choolg would have closed. During the early 1950s the situation was even worse in secondary schools. The intensification of recruitment campaigns led the award of bursaries, scholarships and studentships to thousands of senior school students, the employment of people with hardly any academic qualifications, the mounting of crash prog*"ams of teaching training, and the recruitment of teachers from ovcreaas. Nevertheless, c /en in the early 19609, there were still bome primary classic of o\«?r 6v pupils (ABS 1984, 538) although the g&neral staffing si^uat ion had improvec' to the point that some prima^-y teachers could be transferred for duty in post-primary schools whi^h were by chen taking the bn.r.t of the bulge. The source- of recruits for staffing thp schools can be viev/ed in the perspective of two interesting dimensions - gender and socioeconomic status* As 57 per cent of qualifi3d teaching service personnel, women predominated only slightly over ^.en in the teachiiig service the Victorian Education Department in 198'» (Schwarz 1984, 13). Primary school teaching, on the other hand, ."s a traditionally female occupation. At the older primary teachers ' col leges (Melbourne, Ballarat, Bendigo and Geelong) enrolments had always been predominantly female and while th'^ proportion of male exit students increased slightly during the boom, when new primary colleges were opened at Toorak (1951), Burwood (1954} and Coburg (1959). women continued to make up 72 per cent of the primary teaching force which stood at almost 25000 in 1984 (Schwarz: 1984), Of ths C52 terrporary teachers in Victorian primary schools in the i,rme year, 88 per cent were women. A similar profile is evident in the United Kingdom, fanada and the United States of America. 7.9 67 - ERIC Although it is cleor that primary school teaching remains a feminised occupation it is not so clear whether primary teaching is or really ever has been a route for social mobility. While there is some evidence that females from lower socioeconomic backgrounds attend universities and become secondary teachers, thus increasing both their economic and occupational status, the evidence in relation to primary teachers is extremely tenuous. It appears, more from the general literature than any reliable or quantified data, that primary teaching has always provided an occupational niche for girls, in particular from middle socioeconomic levels. It was never as 'profitable' to be a primary college student (as against a secondary studentship holder). While it is likely that the proportion of the intake from lower socioeconomic groups increased during the late 1940s and into the 1950s simply because of the overall competition for labour during that period, and would always be likely to do so during phases or high demand for teachers, that does not appear to be a constant pattern. Despite the relatively low occupational status of primary teaching it has traditionally been an 'acceptable' occupation for women. Its status among feminised occupations has been relatively much higher than among occupations generally and nossibly because of its association with traoitiona] concepts of maternal responsibility for young children. During the current period of low demand for primary teachers, with continuing high enrolment in courses preparing them the relative proportion of enrolments by gender does not appear to have changed significantly but there does appear to be some evidence that - at leadt in metropolitan colleges - the social profile of the student intake has shifted to favour those with lower socioeconomic status. The theory that primary teaching is a fail-safe route for the upwardly mobile therefore appears to be highly questionable. Even the vicarious mobility embedded in the 'catch a husband' motive cynically attributed to a certain proportion of female college students in the boom periods cannot stand up against the evidence that potential husbands were a bit thin on the ground in colleges with up to 87 per cent female enrolment! Established women primary teachers in the Victorian Education Department have a tough row to hoe. The fol lowing much-r ^produced table indicates the status and classification of men and women primary teachers in March 1984. ERLC Tl^e structure shown in Table 1 represents a transition period between an old and a new career structure, hence the number of people shown as interim senior teachers, interim special and interim principals. These teachers were given from March 1982 to December 19.'^-4 to apply for positions in the principal class and P-^.nd 4 and sufficient positionc were created for them to do so. (Memorandum to Principals and Head Teachers of Primary Schools. 'New Primary Career, Structure' from H.A. Nixon, Acting Director of Primary Education, 30 Mar::h 1982). Relative seniority within those classes was to be restored to 'chose who obtained a position before 31 December 1984 but not after that date. Onp hundred and fifty-sever per cent of teachers had not (March 1984) adjusted their positions; 43 Per cent- ^.rp wo^^ei^ and 57 per cent men. The bulk of these numbers consists of men in the interim senior teacher class. so - 68 - TABLE 1 STATUS AND CLASSIPICATION OF PRIMARY TEACHERS. VICTORIA, 1984 Category Men Women % in Women as of Total Category Total in Category Principal Grade A Principal Grade B Principal Grade 1 (Interim Senior Teacher ) 313 415 5 92 58 1 23 12 17 405 473 6 Band 4 (Interim Principal) (Interim Special) (Interim Senior) Band 4 6 6 96 592 8 21 10 117 57 78 9 17 14 27 106 709 Band 3 (Interim Senior Teacher ) (Head Teacher) Band 3 3 211 972 1 26 636 25 11 40 4 237 1608 RanH 9 ^UooH nanci i» vneaa Teacher ) Band 2 358 1394 107 2808 23 67 465 4202 Band 1 (Head Tq o o f* 1 Band 1 1 1 7 11/ 2257 1 an 1 iv 12215 ,53 84 Z'i 1 14472 luinLi* Lia^jSiriea Teachers 6745 16230 71 22975 TemDorarv Toanhoro 231 1621 88 1 ODZ TOTAL 6976 1 7851 72 24827 Source : Pol i cy and Department of Victoria, Planning Unit (1984) Women in the Education Department of Victoria, Education 18. While Table 1 provides a recent picture of the distribution of men and women by levels, activities relating to the position of women within the primary division (as it once was) have been marked by three fairly discrete periods since the early 1960s. 1960-72 were years nominated by the move towards equal pay and the Teachers' Tribunal debac^ over the establishment of a Common Roll, that is, the abolition of two separate rolls for men and women '-»nd the ERIC - 69 - preparation of a joint roll which would classify male and female teachers in a combined rank order of seniority. 1972-75 was ostensibly a period of poa*tive discr irination for women when a Teachers' Tribunal regulation ;as introducx'^d to ensure that at least one of the three top positions in any Class A school had to be filled by a woman. It might have been reasonable to expect that this would have resulted in a significant number of women enlerint* senior administration positions, and that the model of a woman as a primary principal would have become well established in the primary school community. The final period, 1976-1985, covers the period of the introduction of the Equal Opportunity Act in Victoria, and the removal of sex tagging tor the top three positions within Special Class schools. 1982 was a year in which great internal changes occured in the education department, and it was known that those who did not apply for promotion in 1982 would be severely limited in the next few years. The termination of the three divisions on 1 April 1983 meant that senior administration positions would be open to a wider number of candidates. In September 1984 a letter sent by the Director of Personnel to all Regional Directors suggested that: ^management id€-ntify and encourage possible women applicants for future administrative vacancies in their biaiiches'. It would be generous to suggest that it may have been the ^maternal responsibility for young children' argument, rather than no argument at all, which led to determination to keep women in the classroom and have men do the administering of the primary school (not to mention the primary division and the educa ion department itself). In any event, prior to 1972 the administrative and formal leadership of Victorian primary schools rested exclusively in the hands of male head teachers. Regardless of qualif icf^tions and teaching experience women were not eligible for appointment to the principalship, but were confined to the dizzy promotional level of infant mistress and would ^normally be regarded as the deputy principal' who would understudy Miim' while having major responsibility for the ^administration of the organisation and instructional program within the infant department' (Gazette 1972). State governments, both Labor and Liberal, have actively worked towards changing regulations and the implementation of existing regulations to allow the appointment of women to principal positions. A change in the regulations in 1972 enabled women to apply for senior jobs; but contrary to expectations, as Veronica Schwarz points out, in 1984 *the dis^ribution of male and female teachers (was ) no better than in 1 925 when artificial ratios wer created to limit the number of women in senior positions' (Schwarz 1984). Shirley Sampson notes: that this paradox has occured at a timr when most legal barriers to womer/s advancement in the Educalion Department have bren removed - the marriage bar to pe. manency for women; separate rolls for males and females; entire loss of seniority after breaks in service for chi Idbearing; r^les-only remote allowances and other perks - and all the positions are technically open to either sex. (Sampson, 1982) v/hile the Labor Party piedges itself, inter alia, to examine the ^more subtle factors' which are ^still at work keeping women from decision-making positions in schools', women appear to be becoming increasingly confined to classroom teaching and low level administration activities, and students continue to be conditioned by an authority structure which is dominated by men. There appears to be awareness among researchers and sympathetic policy irakers that despite legislative changes, government policy commitment and open gender access to principal positions, women are still not fi? ing those positions in a.iything like the proportion cf their representation in the profession. But a compJex social system cannot b'3 chan^eed merely by introducing stimuli at particular points. It is like a tangled web of rubber bands. Relationships within it are intricate, elastic and capable of accn Tiodating all sorts of pressures, yet retain their shape under ti>e .nsion of many forces and counter forces and, of course, are very taut much cf the time. It will be increasingly important and difficult, therefore, to continue to convince governments, educators, administrators and planners that women are still a disadvantaged group, that the removal of the most obvious legal impediments tor women has not and will not remove structural discrimination and the effects of social conditioning which are the outcomes of a society in which men have been the ones who have framed laws, policies and programs; where men determine what is important and what ir not; and in which men allocate resources. The neglect of pre-school child care and education in our society iz a gross example of this. FitzGerald points out: 'Forming' the f at ire has two equally important aspects: the bringing i n o operation of the things needed tc reduce the 'pqudiity gap' betwepn the sexes, and the prevention of retrogradp frictorB operating to wid^n thp existing gap. (Fi tzGerald 1981 ) RHffrf> t hp nbvjnun imb<^i3nrec pxplored abr^ve can be addressed by >^ t r a » p 1 ^, r rhan^ i* is nf^f-en^i^r y to seek explanations for thf^m. • ' ^ f •* Y I r f ' W' , ' 1 ' • J i . 1 ' . / J v' <• * * ' ♦ I ' t * * f i 1 ' ' . »• I ^ J r' ' < 1 f ly . < ♦ ► . ' ' ♦ , , ' t . ' ' , ' I J ' 1 » » • i • , ♦ • i y ' * J • ; J t ,''<<-» , Weber, Feldman, and Poling (1981) in turn classify the theories under the headings of Personal and Social roles, Personal and Family Constraints, and Discrimination Patterns* While there are many variants the models can be classified into three main types. The first stresses factors inherent to the individual and assumes that these factors can be generalised to explain why women do not pursue careers in educational administration. The second emphasises a role model for women, particularly within the profession of education, which shapes the expectation of women entering the field, leading them to focus on classroom teaching rather than on administration tasks* The final model highlights the impact that the organisation has on constraining the advancement of women from lower authority and low status positions through to the decision-making levels. While each model places an emphasis on one of the components it is necessary to reiterate that they all recognise t^e necessity to look at the interaction of other aspects. There is no one factor or group of factors which can be seen as the explanation for the continuing unequal distribution of senior administrative positions between men and women* The Woman^s Place Model Kanter ( 1975-76) attributes the s<>x typing of occupations and professions to the fact that mar.y occupations are nearly exclusively filled by members of one sex anu therefore come to have a gender label assigned to them* The so-called ^helping professions' - education, social work and nursing - are grouped as areas where the number of females employed wo>'.ld be greater than the number of males* Within the^e professions there is a further distinction between male and femals employment. In an extension of Kanter's point, it is important to note that there is a vital connection between the social *-xlocation of domestic roles to women and the sex differentials which operate in the workplace because the creation and perpetuation of separate labour markets has come out through the interaction of market forces, with attitudes prescribing ^proper' roles for men and women* The profile of the workforce smply illustrates this connection* Wherever one looks, not only in education, but in the professions, government, business and industry as well, the proportion of women rises as one moves down to the base end of the statistical measures* They are invariably under-represented at the executive and managerial levels. Thuj? , Frasher and Frasher ( 1979) suggest that women who teach are engagi^e in socially designated bahaviours. Male teachers by a certain age are more likely to be in socially expected management roles. Thp Woman's Place model argues that wome'^ also accept the <1ifff>r*-ricp in the roles because of the influence of socialisation profpfi';r'p. Few women have been exposed to role models of women in 'UT. lor % \ si r eit we pofiitions in education. Estler (197S) notes Mwit thi.ri* )n rirt dbfj^MK^e of women from the faculty of educational I'lnir ^tr-j'i r. foarn^M. i o \ hf^ iJn i t pd Spates Universities and Briggs i'''^ (' • I'yM/*, h.iv^' ur,fo6 rimiiariy for students in the Australian The small number of women in the role of primary principals in the United States of America (20 per cent in 1973) and Western Australia (55 per cent in 1980) and Victoria (21 per -ent in 1982), for example, may lend support to this argument. On the other hand there have been two principals of co-educatinal teachers' training colleges in Victoria - Ida Lowndes (Coburg Teachers' College from 1959 to 1975) and Alice Hoy (Principal of the Secondary Teachers' College from 1950 to 1957) so that there would have been a number of men and women who had been exposed to a woman in a senior administration role even at a time when women were denied direct access to principal positions of primary schools. Some women teachers, educated in non-government schools, would also have experienced the situation of seeing women as administrators. Nevertheless the total number of women acting as models in dominance positions has always been relatively small and is not likely to have been influential. A key argument advanced by those who employ the Woman's Place Model is ♦■he supposed link between the declining number of women in senior administrative positions and the level of aspiration of women teachers, and the view that men tend to identify long- term career goals in education earlier in their employment than women. The stock answer to such an assertion is to ask whether the differential aspirations of men and women are n effect of limited opportunity or born of deliberate choice. The two are , of course , not separable: choice is determined in relation to perceived opportunity. Further* however, it is a glaring nonsense to argue that most women lack Veal ambition'. Very few men have a driving ambition sustained for years and decades which enables them to reach the top in their chosen fields. If around 10 per cent of males are high achievers, 90 per cent are not. A high proportion of the men who 'make it' have the support of what Kanter described as the 'wcatn's auxilliary', whereas those few women who do attain senior positions do not appear to have the same level of support, (Gross and Trask 1976). Given that 'aspiration' is as conditioned as ^expectation', it is difficult to design any valid and reliable measure of what women could or would aspire to if they dared to dream! In this context it is also difficult to ease ot t in any macro sense to what extent the aspirations of women ore in fact set by the particular conflict between 'career' and 'family' and whether or not women accept that their public and private domains are incompatible, the implication being that the two choices are mutually exclusive, "^he socialisation of girls is still heavily influenced by this dichotomy of choice and may be argued to influence their level of aspiration. The Woman's Place Model is often associated with trait theories emerging from the Jungian animus/c>nima dichotomy. While the construct validity of such theories is questionable, there has Leen much discussion, of course, about the need to balance the so--called Alpha, or masculine leadership style with the Beta, a more feminine leadership style. The Alpha male power style is characterised as being more direct, aggressive and competitive, and based on a clear win or lose philosophy, whereas the Beta style, generally perceived as feminine, is based on synthesising, intuitive, qualitative thinking, more holistic than the Alpha s*tyle, and more concerned with the growth and quality of life. ERLC 73 It is sometimes argued that the Beta style is better able to deal with change, while the Alpha style focuses on the short range, perceiving change as chaotic or disruptive and relying on order to control it. It is not certain whether the argument extends to saying that men are structural functionalists while women are critical social theorists! As far as is known no studies have indicated that these behavioural terdencies are innate to one sex or another but it is clear that sex role expectations tend to polarise the behaviours. In examining why some women in leadership appear to function just as ruthlessly as some men and why many younger women moving up in traditionally male dominated fields test higher than males in the dominant Alpha mode it has been hypothesised that women believe they have to assume male-associated attributes to ensure success. The syllogistic relationship is clear: success requires achievement oriented behaviour? achievement behaviour requires competitive behaviour. Competitive behaviour is a sublimated form of aggressive behaviour. Aggressive behaviour is regarded as unfeminine. Therefore success is regarded as unfeminine. Deveson reports Schwartz (a leader in Alpha-Beta research) as saying that this Mf you can't beat 'em, Join 'em' syndrome would be dangerous to society: The current paralysis is in part a function of the dominance of the masculine style of leadership. If it continues to be the sole model of leadership available, it is likely to lead us increasingly in the direction of an authoritarian and homogeneous society. Balancing Alpha and Beta leadership, the male with the female in both men and women, is necessary to break the deadlock and to preserve a free and diverse society. Most commentators who argue thus would hasten to acknowledge thp feminist axiom, Simone de Beauvoir's principle that the notion of ^'i-n'.inini ty' itself is a fiction. There is no feminine nature, only a femininp situation which determines the character of its subjects. Irrespective of the na t u r e /n u r t ur e argument, the reality that, 'femininity' is a concept assented to by society, has to be confronted, although the term ^ f eminisat ion' is used to apply to a focus on a social change rather than personal characteristics. Also associated with the Woman's Place Model are the fear of failure a'^4d fear of success theories. The fear of failure theory is commonplace. Horner (1968) postulates, however, that women avoid promotional moves because of their fear of success - a challenge to their own sexual identity in a field where they ar<= competing with men. The argument is that wom^n internalise the predominant social belief in respect to what is appropriate achievement for W0ii.en in the workforce. In this way wotpen themselves help to maintain the separation of roles, heedless to say, institutions also reinforce and perpetuate these differences. The varieties of th*2 Woman's Place Model tend to embody deficit assumptions: women are not equal to men because women are ^deficient' in certain abilities and skill possessed and valued by men. It is not particularly relevant in this argument whether the cause of the inequality is perceived to lie in the person or in her experience or both, for both represent a devaluing of women -nd ^assume that (Deveson 1982,5) dominant male mainstream culture is intrinsically more valuable than any other' (Gray 1984,16), Blaming the 'victim' detracts from the problems inherent in the nature of the organisation and may even have the effect of reducing the promotional mobility of certain groups to senior positions. T he Discr imi nation Mode l It is the means by which the reinforcement and perpetuation of the separation of roles occur that constitute Estler's discrimination model. The structure of an organisation determines the constraints placed upon the promotional opportunities and determines who decides on the allocation of rewards. A further explanation often advanced is that there is de facto positive discrimination in favour of the appointment of men in administrative positions. The status of women in sorial work, for example, demonstrates that whil^» women account for two-thirds of the workforce ♦'here is a disproportionate number of men in administration and control-oriented jobs and a disproprotionate number of women in direct practice and care-oriented jobs. The jobs ascribed status as 'men's work', that is, policy and administration, are invariably paid more than those designated as 'women's work'. The parallel with primary teaching isi obvious. The irony of the situation in social work, which also has some relevance to primary and pre~school ed' ation, is that meii were encouraged to enter the profession in the hope that the image and status of the profession would be upgraded by removing the notion that social work is a 'woman's profession'. It is apparent that both active and passive forms of structural discrimination operate against women to prevent them from gaining access to principal positions, largely because those who have been /-^sponsible for determining the eligibility of applicants for promotional positions are overwhelmingly men. There was not &7en one female district inspector in Victoria until 1976. It is also notable that f rom 1972 to 1975 attempts to introduce positive discrimination for women teachers was thwarted by moves initiated through the Primary Men's Branch of the Victorian Teachprs' Union. The discrimination model assumes that women cannot advance even if they want to and even if they have the qualifications and experience required to fill a position. While it is illegal in Australia to formally state barriers which are blatantly discriminatory in gender terms, it is apparent that the jobs held by most women workers i- comparison wit) those of their male counterparts tend to hcve shorter chains of opportunity associated with them and to contain fewer achievement opportunities. Males, for the most part, still reserve the ability to distribute rewards. Those who associate wi^h other power holders are in a stronger position to take advantage of favourable mobility prospects. It is important to know (and for the information to be made public) whether there was an increase in the number of applications from women for administrative positions once the obvious discriminatory barriers v.ere removed; and what was the composition of promotion committees in the Victorian Education Department., (Both authors think they have noted, how^^ver, a clear tendency on the p.^rt 8? ~ 75 of women on selection and promotion committees to be much tougher on their sisters than the males on the committees.) The Meritocracy Model The Meritocracy Model advanced by Estler is the obverse of the Discrimination Model and is predicated upon the assumption that the most competent people are promoted according to their ability. It would follow from this that males have filled the bulk of principal positions because they were more competent than women teachers (competence in the traditional education department sense beting defined in weberian terms relating to seniority, qualifications and performance, generally in that order). Where the most competent people are promoted or appointed on ability alone and there are no systematic barriers constraining members of any group from achieving a given goal, a truer meritocratic mode] exists. It is clear that if the meritocratic modsl puts a high premium on performance, and performance in the classroom is the first hurdle for getting out of it, v;omen should be much more heavily represented in administrative positions. According to Gross and Trask (1976) women principals were generally higher achievers than their male counterparts at secondary school and college. It is an arguable hypothesis that the average female student destined for the teaching profession is more able than the average male teacher student. Lat^r , however, women probably tena to take more education and curriculucn subjects rather than administration oriented courses. The model also adopts a somewhat simplistic view of the sociology of organisations, the study of whic!* seems to have largely overlooked the position of women in organisational structures. When an organisation is viewed as a large complex social unit in which many groups interact, gender can be seen rs an important variable affecting the lives of groups. The gender composition of a group appears to have impact on behaviour around issues of power and leadership, aspirations, peer relations and the relative involvement or isolation of group members. On the other hand the meritocratic model is non--sexist, incorporating respect for values and aspirations while seeking to eliminate sex bias. It does Hi* tie, however, to suggest remedies for a situation where groups are suffering di sadvan tage ♦ Cende: -f ree concepts continue to advantage the beneficiaries of the status quo. Similarly, the suggestion (emanating from the Woman's Place Model in our classification) that women could he freed from the restriction of rigid gender-role stereotypes by accepting the androgynous view and taking on Alpi^^ characteristics (and that men should adopt Beta characteristics), while gender inclusive insists that jmen become more like men and continues to represent devaluation of whatever it is that is different about won.en, irrespective of its basis, biological, psychological or sociological. ConclK^sion More affirmative or fem^riist models not sufficiently accounted for in Estler's examination recognisp that the question of change is ERLC - 76 - political. As Spender (1983) argues, it is about power ^ who is to be valued, who decides - and the issue of power must be confronted. In this context, however, it is argued that liberation may be more significant than equality per se , and liberation requires a rejuvenation of the concept of power. Power is a fundamental category of all human experience but it is badly misunderstood and often taken to be an immoral chacteristic belonging to those who oppose or ignore the various forms of Judaeo-Christian ethics. It has become something of a bad word in western culture. Yet power is part of everyone's daily life, and we need to learn how to talk about power and to participate effectively in the various -ower relations in which we inevitably find ourselves (as parents, teachers, lovers, spouses, employees, employers, citizens, voters, group members and neighbours). In other words, accessibility to our own aspirational construct is a freedom and much of the argument embedded in all of the modf^ls implicitly highlights the relationship between power and freedom. The attitudes which consign to power a negative meaning have undermined the social awareness and occupational responsibility of men and women alike. A clearer understanding of what power means in ordinary life, how it is related to acting freely and what it can contribute to a renovated ethics of organisational behaviour is critical to the success of a sustained program to improve the lot of women in education department schools. Women in particular must seek power over power, to influence decisions about who decides. Power over power implies the possibility of changing what is considered to be important. It is argued that the so-called Beta or feminine characteristics - th^ different ways in which women as a result of experiental factors see and deal with the world ^nd relationships - are of enormous value in all spheres of endeavour and particularly education. In any educational organisation, mutual understanding and agreement as to what the organisation's goals ars and the means by which th.^y are to be attained is at the core of administration and teaching. The people who are b'^st qualified to teach are those with the appropriate attitudes and skills for the task. There seems to be ready acceptance of tne success of women in this task. Regrettably, however, thore is not a career structure at the classroom level where outstanding t-eachers can be promoted to very senior levels in t»^rms of both prestige and material reward. Rather, at this point 'the system' loses sight of its own purpose and things arr organised in such a way that the further away from the classroom one gets, the more prestigp and money one is likely to be accorded. 'Administration' in this absurd system is raised to a level of quasi-religious significance. There can be little question, however, that the best managers at any level are those with the most stake in the outcome. It is also axiomatic that those usually recognised as good managers share at least one common attribute: that is, a tendency to the view that it is not necessarily their j^b to make sound decisioiis but to see that sound decisions are made. The concepts of particip^' .o.. which are now prevalent in educational institutions are designed in an attempt to ensuie that conditions of work are created where people understand the objectives, have a stake in the outcome 77 - and where their ideas make a real contribution the results obtained* This concept of participation is based on the notion that wnen people can think, when they have influence on outcomes, they support rather than comply or resist... The probability is ♦ncreased that solutions achieved will De sound and fundamental, not needing constant review and revisior People are able to give the best of themselves, rather t..an seeking the best for themselves, as is often time when one's contributions are not sought. The 9.9 (most desirablp and effective) managerial style identified by Blake and Mouton is, notabJy, that which is dependent upon those characteristics associated with the Beta or feminine type. The Weberian bureaucracy is in many cases, whether at the s'^hool or departmental level, dying on its feet. The slowness of schools and education systems to respond to the social and economic needs of tht young can be laid at the same feet, that is, the bureaucracy with a heavy stake in the false security of the status quo which has provided rewards for the competitive, the tough-minded and the tenancious. Thus, in terms of strategies a two-pronged argument emerges, firstly, it has been suggested that administration is an occupation which is peripheral to ♦'he fundamental purpose of education and should be forced back into that position in decades to come. In other words administration should be organisationally redefined to redress the situation in which its social meaning and expansion have been in the interests of increasing the situational power of men and have implicitly denigrated the importance teaching as a career. Such an approach must be integrated with a rejuvenated concept of power and leadership resting heavily on ethics of personal and professional behaviour. Leadership must come from the central educational domain rather than the administrative periphery. To achieve such changes will require considerable commitment and revolutionary discipline but if the goal remains clear and cogent while the old guard is gradually replaced the new order which is required for elementary justice will begin to emerge. In promoting such changes, however, there now appears to be the danger of a potentially destructive element in the increasing popularity of androgyny as an 'answer' to the problems of the subjugation of women. While the concept is essentially neutral and has clear advantages in freeing people from traditional and rigid sex-role stereotypes it req»jires that women should be more like men. There is a strong case that men should be more like women and that society should concentrate on valuing the things women do and are. Anne Deveson has stated that: men have disowned, and indeed are fearful of those qualities whic.i they have relegated to women, the ability to be open and shut (Blake and Mouton 19f^,144) abouf emotions and feelings, the willingness to relate... Women have projected on the men responsiDiMties for decision-^making, for being assertive, for taking action where action is required... It is hard for men to dare to be vulnerable. (Deveson 1982,6) We would also have to admit to having little concern about jibes directed at 'token' women. Many women have and will start off in some areas as token representatives but at leact get the opportunity to engage in the learning experience and many do becoir.e extremely effective despite the isolation they oft.en feel. It is important whether a woman starts off as a token or not, for her to acknowledge when she is in a status position that it is not always easy to think like a woman in a man's world. She should not shed the female experience or discount hereself because her integrity resides in her being a woman, not an eresatz man, and that is important at times of inevitable confrontation. Women, by virtue of their numbers and the removal of form.:^l barriers to advancement do have the incipient power to change the face of the career structure in primary education. They must not be satisifed to have merely the rights associated with equal opportunity, but must claim and implement them. Reference's Australian Bureau of Statistics, (1984) Victorian Year Book I9f\4. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Canberra. Hlake . L. ed. ( 1 97 3 ) Vision and Real isation , Vol 1. Education Department of Victoria, Melbourne. Blake, R and Mouton, J. (1964) The Managerial Grid. Scientific Methods Inc. Austin, Texas. Briggs. D.K. and OBrien, P. Women as candidates for educotional administration, in R. Burns and B. Sheehan (eds.). (1984) Women and Education, ANZCIES, Bundoora, 251-59. Deveson, A. ( 1 982) Woman power - or how to avoid extinction. The Caroline Chisholm Lecture, La Trobe University. Education Department of Victoria Education Gazette and Teachers' Aid. 29 January 1972. Estler, S. 0975) Women in Education, Signs: Journal of Women In CuliMte and t:ociety 1(2) 363-86. FitzGerald, 0. (1981) The Seven Stages of Women: Approaching the End. The Caroline Chisholw Lecture, La Trobe Univ^-rsity. Frasher, J.M. and Frasher, R.S. (1979) Educational administration: a feminine profession. Educat ' on-j 1 Adwinistrat ion Quarterb/f 15(2) i-n. ERIC - 79 - Gray, A. Concepts of disadvantage and models of remediation, in Burns and Sheehan, eds, ( 1984) Women and Education ANZCIES, Bundoora . Gross, N. and Trask, A-E- ( 1976) The Sex Factor and the nanagement of Schools. Wiley, New York, Horner, M.S. ( 1960) Sex differences in achir^vement motivation and performance in competitive and non-competitive situations, Ph, D, Dissertation (unpub.). University of Michigan. Kanter, R.M. ( 1975-76) The impact of hierarchical structu.^es on Lhe work behaviour of women and men. Social Problems 23(1), ^15-30. Sampson, S. (July 1982) Address to Women in Education conference, (duplicated) Monash University, Schwarz, V. (March 1984 ) Women in the Education Department of Victoria, Report prepared bv the Policy and Planning Unit, Education Department of Victoria, Spenaer, D. (1983) Bluestocking 45, December. Trotman, J. ( 1980) Women work and research: the case of education systems, forking Papers: Second Women & Labour Conference, 2. La Trobe University, Weber, M.B», Feldman, J.R. and Poling, E.G. (1981) Why women are under-represented in educational administration. Educational Leadership Journal of the Assoc i ation for Supervision and Curriculum Development , January, 320-322. ERIC - 00 - TEACHING - AN ATTRACTIVE CAREER FOR WO MEN? Ann Scott and Eddie Clarke Introduction The argument put forward in this paper is that despite current high unemployment levels, if improved career paths are not offered to women within education, an overall decline in the quality ot the teaching service is likely to take place. Queensland is used as the case study upon which the argument is based, though there is little reason to believe that the Queensland experience is markedly different from that ef other states. The paper will draw on three main sources. Firot, a monograph written by co-author, Mr Eddie Clarxe, historian with Ihe Queensland Education Department, entitled Female Teachers in Queensland State Schools 1860 - 1983: A History. An overview of this ; aper will draw attention to some long-term trends in the ^mploymer ' of women teachers and their role in educational management In Queensland. Second, a paper ^Contradicti ons, Ironies, and Profpjgpg Unfulfilled* A Contemporary Account of the Status of Teaching^ by Gary Sykes, published in Phi Delta Kappani which craws attention to some disturbing trends affecting the teaching profespion in the United States • Last, a hypothesis suggested bv the Sykes paper, examining statistics contained in the Queensland Tertiary AdmissionE Centre's annual reports from the l^ce 1970's, will be tested. Women and the Teaching Profession in Queensland (based on Clarke) The employment of women in the Queensland education 6/stem has bee \ the subject of trends and influences which will be familiir to those concerned with patterns of employment of women. From constitutional separation from New South Wales in 186^. until 1875 the recruitment of women was relatively high because it was difficult to attract males into teaching. From about 1876 to 1880 more males were available so the recruitment of womwn dropped. From 1881 to about 1890 the Colony underwent rapid expansion and the range of openings for males resulted in the education system again depending heavily on the recruitment of females. There was a period of general stagnation during the Depression from 1891 to about 1894. Although this led to an increase in the recruitment of males, the education system itself was expanding so rapidl/ that female recruitment did not suffer. This was followed by a period of recovery, then growth until the outbreak of the First World War, The First World War saw an increase in the role of women within the education department, including an increase in the number of female classified teachers. A period of expansion followed, until the Great De^^ression in the 1930s, when there was again a decline in the number of women teachers employed. ERLC 81 - r The Second World War served to break the pattern established during the Depression and 1940 marked the re-employment of married women on a temporary basis reversing a regulation made in 1902 requi; ing women to resign when they married (which had consolidated an existing social practice). This reversal culminated in a provision for the permanent employment of married women in 1969, Teaching was an attractive occupation for women during the nineteenth century. While some encouragement was given to women to occupy professional positions, teaching was the onlv profession generally available to women. They were just beginning to enter medicine in the 1890's, which at the time was nrt regarded as a respectable profession for women. Other professions continued to exclude women, and the public service remained closed to females until 1902 when women were permitted to enter the lowest echelon. Consequently, woiking class and middle class females with intellectual ability were interested in the teaching profession. It provided, in the patriarchal society of the time, a ♦ospected, if not prestigious, position in society before marriage and a permanent occupation for those who chose not to marry or who had become the sole bread-winners of a family. (Clarke 1985) However, the employment and promotion practices which existed in th^ nineteenth century were not particularly favourable to women. The Queensland education syster. at this time depended on three levels of teacher: the provisional (or unclassified) teacher, the pupil-teacher, and the certified teacher. Provisional Teachers Provisional schools were first established in 1869 to cater for an average attendance of between 12 and 20 students. These schools usually operated until a state school was establisheo. The system of staffing provisional rchools operated against the interests of women. Provisional school teachers had little or no educational qualification, were unclassified, and therefore not on the promotion ladder. District inspectors reported that th^ise women were superior to the men. One asserted that female teachers were better adapted to the work of small provisional schools laan males, and the department intended to replace tho men with women as opportunities arose. However, when the enrolment of a provisional school rose above an average attendance of 30, the (female) provisional schoo3 teacher was replaced by a married male classified teacher (who was provided with an official residence). The majority of the women so displaced were offered the opportunity of employment in a small community elsewhere. The department became heavily dependent on provisional school teachers. Between 1892 and 1902 the percentage of provisional teachers ranged from ?2 to 26 percent of all teachers in the Department. Initially they ti:^d mainly been men, but the perce^ntage of women quickly rose (see Table i). ERIC - 82 - In 1909, changes in educational regulations reduced the number of provisional schools, but after this there was little change in the number of provisional schools (about 60) until the 1960s when they were phased out. Most of the former provisional schools became small, one-teacher state schools. Many remained under the control of unclassified teachers, most of whom were female. During World War I, with a teacher shortage, the department increased the percentage of female unclassified teachers. Pi:pil Teachers From early on, females formed a major: :y of pupil-teachers. Many head teachers gave the large classes in the lower Isvel of the school to pupil-teachers, while the assistant teachers took small classes in the upper school. Thus, in the early 1870s, 70 per cent of pupil- teachers were female and assistant teachers in the upper school were nearly always male. But the percentage of female pu p i 1 - t e a che r s fluctuated significantly between the period 1860-1900. Decreases in the proportion of female pupil-teachers tended to coincide with the si owing down in the increase of the school population (1875—1880) and with the Depression after 1891. Because job prospects were so poor, the department wao able to employ more males during the Depression and so decrease the proportion of female pupil-teachers. Classified Teachers Once pupil-teachers had completed their examinations they oecame classified teachers. The heavy dependence on female provisional teachers was reflected in the smaller percentage of classified female than cl jified male teachers (see Table 2). Promotion was based on passing examinations and receiving satisfactory reports from ir.spectors. Until 1899 females doing at a lower standard than the males and were not required to study mathemat i cs. A much lower percentage of females Lhan males went on to p-iss the Class II and Class I examinations. Amongst a variety of explanations put forward for this from various sources, it was suggested that males had many more head teacher posts available to them as an incentive. This question of incentive will be discussed later in tht paper. The curriculum differences were eliminated in 1898, when algebra and Euclid were added to the primary curriculum, and female teachers had to update their knowledge by studying mathematics in their own time at technical colleges. Despite the fact that the female pupil- teachers now had to cover more in their training than did the malos (who were still not required to learn to sew), they still managed to obtain better examination results than the males. This may have been because the brighter females had fewer occupational choices than the males and greater numbers of females were attracted to teaching. In 1890 a policy was established not automatically to employ pupil-teach jrs on completion examinations, thus enabling positive discrimination in favour of males. Through the period between 1902 and 1940 the department ai<-^ed, with varying degrees of success, to restrict the employment of female teachers to a certain percentage* This targ€?t figure varied from 33 per cent in 1910 to 40 per cent in 1928. To iichieve this, the department continued to discriminate in favour of m of describing the situation. Because a teaching career was not sufficiently attractive to young men, the department had set males' salaries at a higher rate. But neither the majority of women teachers nor the teachers' union supported the minority who sought equal pay. Indeed, a leading article in the Queensland Education Journal in 1900 opposed it. However women did react when the differential between male and female salaries was changed, increasing the disadvantage of female te-^.chers. ERIC - 84 - This change took place in 1898 when the salaries of male assistant teachers were raised but the salaries of female assistant teachers remained unchanged. When the women tried to stir their Union (QTU) into action, they initially had a lethargic response. A study of the Union's Journal, the Queensland Education Journal of 1900 leads to the conclusion that the editor was not sympathetic towards; the women's cause. He dared them to fight, but his tone suggested that he did not believe they would. Uhen the women became more militant, the Journal quickly became more supportive on the issue, as did the union as a body. After the women had demonstrated an independent spirit, the Journal exhorted them not to disregard the union. The equal pay issue was not resolved for half a century. In 1967 the issue went before the Industrial, Conciliation and Arbitration Commission which ruled that equal pay should be introduced. This was phased in over the ^lext four years. Throughout the period 1904 to 1939, the policies of the department of Public Instruction were strongly influenced by J D Story, a public servant prominent in education over many decades. Story was appointed to inquire into the reorganisation of the public service and in so doing stated that women should fill the lower Jobs: The higher positions should be filled by malea for economic and administrative reasons, and because of their family respons ibilities. The Department of Education followed the course of action advocated by Story. Women were restricted wherever possible to the lower rungs of the public service and males benefitted from positive discrimination, even in the lower rungs. Significant changes in the pattern of employment of women in the education service in Queensland have taken place recently. From the 1960s improved conditions, especially for married women, have led to more women undertaking teaching as a life-lcn^ career. For example, since 1969, married women have been entitled to apply for permanent status. However, during the last four decades there has been a reduction in the number of small primary schools and an increase in the number of large primary schools. This has created strong competition for the direction of the one-teacher school, the lowest rung in the promotional ladder. Up to the 1930s a majority of these schools had females in charge. By 1980 this situation had changed completely. Of the 111 Class VI (one-teacher) schools, only 15 had female principals. Furthermore, the precedent established in 1976 allowing women to be appointed to the position of principal of a mixed high school has not led to a significant increase in the number of women in such positions. (Clarke 1985) (Clarke 1985) ERLC Recent changes in employment policies have thus resulted in equal pay. They have also contributed to the alteration of employment trends observed in past depressions and recessions. During the current recession, the percentage of female teachers employed has risen instead of falling, and the percentage in 1983 (60 per cent) has been surpassed, since 1860, only in four other years, those between 1918 and 1921. However, the percentage of principals' positions occupied by females, which j^.adually declined after the 1880s has continued to decline during the last decade, even though fewer impediments to female promotion appear to have existed over this decade. Paradoxically, the recent gradual elimination of the categories of male and female positions of responsibility within the Department of Education has operated more to the advantage of males. Furthermore, no female has yet risen above the rank of inspector, the first one having been appointed in 1919 (see Table 3). The Underlying Assumption One of the major assumptions underlying the employment of teachers has been that while males have to have positive inducements to join the profession, similar incentives have not been necessary for females, who choose teaching faute de mieux, because of the absence of satisfactory alternatives. Other incidental lessons can be dratvn both from the reluctance of the union to be drawn into the struggle for greater equity, and from the reluctance of many women themselves to be similarly drawn. The question might also be asked as to why the promotion of women into management positions has actually declined while so many other inequities have been eliminated. If the trend of low promotion rates among women continues three effects may be expected; first, the morale of those women of high ability already in the teaching prof ^sion is likely to decline, and low morale may well lead to a lowering of teaching effectiveness; second, education systems will be likely to lose women with high administrative ability because of better opportunities elsewhere; third, the evident lack of career prospects will discourage the most able women from entering the teaching profession. The United States of America (based on Sykes) While bearing in mind this apparent decline in opportunity for career advancement for women Wxthin the Queensland education system, an assessment will be made of the current state of the teaching profession in the United States of America, put foi'ward in the article by Sykes. Sykes sees tne teaching profession in the United States as imperilled. He bases his assessment on the analysis of three topics: the teaching occupation and its position in the US occupational structure; the i ns t i t ut i onal i sa t i on of teacher education in the multipurpose university; and the prevailing view of the relationship between knowledge and practice in teaching. It is the analysis of the ERLC • 'O - 86 - position of the teaching profession in the occupational structure in the United States which may have significant parallels in Australia. The picture Sykes portrays of the development of the US teaching service is similar to that in Australia, The largely feminine workforce du-'ng the period from 1840 to 1950 'was characterised by high turnover ahd low salaries'. Recruitment and work rewards, together with a unique position in the occupational structure, combined to supply the necessary members. Teachers gave up income and advancement opportunities in return for the fulfillment of ideals related to service, a convenient work schedule, and a certain esteem (albeit shadowed) tendered by the community. (Sykes 1983, 88) He lists other characteristics, then concludes: Finally, the critical - though hidden - element that kept the teacher workforce adequate in size was the blocked career path for educated women and minorities. (Sykes 1983, 88) Sykes continues by identifying a series of trends which has upset the balance of attractions and circumstances that served in the past to attract teachers. In particular, two of these trends are significant. First, the loss of occupational prestige: No longer the best-educated members of many communities, teachers feel an intangible but nonetheless real loss of standing, especially in the eyes of their college-educated peers. Some unpublished evidence indicates that, between 1963 and 1980, public school teachers suffered a greater loss of occupational prestige than any other occupation in the study. (Sykes 1983, 88) Sykes dcis not mention the additional loss of esteem resulting from the persistent and frequently ill-considered attacks on teacher competence, attacks which appear to have become increasingly politically acceptable in the United States as well as Australia. Rather than facilitating improvements in teaching, these attacks perve further to deter able people with alternatives open to them from choosing teaching as their career. The currently fashionable non sequitur that education systems are tc blame for the high level of youth unemployment can only add to this decline in the attraction of teaching as a career. The second point, that women and minorities (principally negroes in the United States) suffered blocked career paths elsewh»-.e, ia the one which led to the investigation of recent patterns of course choice ERLC - 87 - in Queensland which follows. Historically, men have had alter. lative career choices, and the education system had to compete with these alternative choices in order to retain able male teachers. Sykes draws attention to the effect of the recent broadening of occupational choices foi women: The occupation of teaching (now) stands little chance of attracting the academically talented. Although the standardised test scores of teachers have always been low, the decline in these scores between 1972 and 1980 has be^-^n somewhat steeper than the national average. Studies show that scores among women in teaching have declined in particular, a situation that is probably related to the expansion of career opportunities for bright females. Another study reveals that the proportion of high scorers in teaching has declined markedly - evidence that the cream is being skimmed. As a broader range of careers has opened up for these groups and as pressures on women to work have increased, the best and brightest among col 1 eg^e-educated blacks and women have turned to more lucrative and more prestigious careers than teaching - careers that were denied them until recently. Ironically, social progress has taken a heavy toll on the occupation of teaching. Trends in the Queensland ^Occupational League Table"^ Since 1980, the Annual Reports of the Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre, have separated out statistics on female applicants. They were examined to see what courses the most able females were choosing and whether there were any trends evident which might support Sykes' thesis that the most able women were increasingly choosing other career options than teaching. In particular, ♦'hose courses which were unlikely to be followed by a Diploma in Education, and thus the least likely to eventually lead to school teaching were examined. The trends in social work enrolments were also perused, in the light of Sykes' assertion that teaching, nursing and social work no longer enjoy a monopoly on the powerful occupational motivation of service careers that promise meaningful work with and for others. These were compared with education course intakes. Table 4 demonstrates what can only be described as the institutional league table, based on the choice of institution by Tertiary Entrance Score. From this one can see that the University of Queensland tends to cream off che most able students, having a minimum entry of 880, and a concentration of students in the 900b. Table 5 provides the mirror image graph of percentage enrolments in the University of Queensland, male and female. The percentage of women has risen steadily since 1950 (when the figures on which this was based started), to 1982-84 where enrolments have not been far short of 50 per cent. (Sykes 1983, 88-89) - 88 - Table 6 shows the increase in the percentage of women enrolled by faculty. From this it will be seen that while the percentage in education has increased and in social work has remained steady, there has also been a considerable rise in faculties such as medicine, law and veterinary science. Thi s can be c ompar ed with the median tertiary entrance score, by course rather than by faculty (Table 7)* For the sake of comparison some courses outside the University of Queensland are included as they appear to conform to a general trend. From this one can see how the occupational league table looks, with medicine consistently taking the highest ability students, followed by pharmacy, arts/law, engineering and law. What is particularly significant about this table is that the social work median tertiary entrance (TE) score has dropped, as has the B Ed Studies. Commerce degrees both at James Cook University and at the University of Queensland have been able to demand an increasingly high TE score, whereas the oducation courses appear to be lowering their TE requiroments . Tabl es 8 and 9 gi ve the numbe r s of women enrol led in a range of courses during 1980-84. These also seem to confirm the impression that the most able female students now condider that other careers may hold more promise than the teaching profession. The tertiary entrance score is a measure of secondary school achievement, expressed in an aggregate score. It does not represent a form of standard intelligence test as does the American Scholastic Aptitude Test. Looking at TE scores indicates which courses the best secondary achievers are rating highly. It may be that there are complex explanations for these trends which contradict this interpretation. However, when figures to corroborate Sykes' point were sought, they were found very easily. There are also indications that this is probably a general problem within Australia. The Beazley Report records that, in Western Australia, teaching is attracting a lower entrance score than the other professions, and the recent Commonwealth report. Quality of Education in Australia, also alludes to the problem of declining quality in teacher recruits. The purpose of presenting the figured is to lend support to the suggestion that education systems, though faced with the dilemma of increasingly tight funding, cannot afford to ignore the potential decline in the intellectual ability of its recruits. Despite current high unemployment levels it is no longer safe to aosume that the most able women will be entering the teaching profession. The supply and demand arguments which have traditionally been used to support applying different employment policies to men and women should be reconsidered. Sykes asserts that recent developments have irreversibly undercut the relative attraction of teaching; the only recruitment resource that remains is a working schedule fitted to the demands of childrearing and affording ample opportunity for recreation' . (page 89) ERIC It may have been realistic to recognise, as did the Queensland General Inspector Randal MacDonnell, in 1865, that: While the teaching profession opens an honorable and profitable career (perhaps the only one in this country) to educated women, it is by no means so attractive either in its immediate gains or in ultimate pecuniary prospects, to young men who ... can turn a moderate education to better account in the banks and offices of the city. If those currently administering the education system are not alert to the dangers, more and more yoking women may also turn a moderate education to better account in the range of careers now offering to them. While it will always be possible to recruit some female teachers, withoL*t the expectation of equitable care'^r prospects ahead of I hem it may prove increasingly difficult to recruit the most able women to teaching. Teaching appears to be slipping down the occupational league table for females as well as males. If this trend is allowed to continue it i^.ay contribute towards setting Australian education on wh^it Sykes describes as 'the downward spiral in quality'. It is therefore as important for the quality of education as it ia for the principle of equity, that women's prospects in educational management in primary and secondary education be re-evaluated. In the interests of the quality of the teaching service it is essential to ensure that women perceive teaching as offering a career which provides recognition for academic, teaching and administrative ability in which the opportunities tor advancement are palpably as available to able women as to able men. Rather than saying "this is not fair" perhaps we should be saying "this is unwise". References Beazley, K. (chairperson) (1964) Education in Western Australia, Report of the Commi ttee of Inquiry into Education in Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia. Clarke, E. (1985) Female Teachers in Queensland State Schools 1860- 1983 - A H i storg t Policy and Information Services Branch. Department of Education, Queensland. Karmel, P. (chairperson) ( 1985) Quality of Education in Australia: Report of the Review Comittee. AGPS, Canberra. Sykes, G. (1983) 'Contradictions, Ironies, and Promises Unfulfilled: A Contemporary Account of the Status of Teaching', Phi Delta Kappan, October , 87-93 . ERIC - 90 - TABLE 1 PROVISIONAL SCHOOL TEACHERS, QUEENSLAND, 1873-1908 In 1909, the number of Provisional Schools was reduced to about 60, the others being re-classified as Statn Schools. 100 90 80 70 Women as % of all provisional teachers Women provisional teachers as % of all women teachers ro in 00 00 rH 1 ro in rH cr> cr> 0^ o 00 CO 00 00 00 rH rH rH rH rH rH O in o o 00 o ERLC TABLE 2 CLASSIFIED TEACHERS: 1860-1945 After 1946 the number of Classified Teac}' continued to rise until it reached 100% 100 30 . 20 10 - Male classified teachers as % of all classified teachers — "-'Ma3e classified teachers as of total maie teachers Female classified teachers as % of all classified teachers Female classified teachers as % of total female teachers -7^ o lo CO 00 o CO CO o CO CO in CO CO o CO in CO 75 ff^ o o ^ ERLC lr.4 TABLE 5 ERIC TABLE 6 PERCENTAGE OF WOMIN ENROLLED BY FACULTY (NOT COURSE) UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND, 1930-84 O - Agriculture Architecture Coiranerce/econ Education ^< K Law — — Medicine —* — ^ Science • • • • Social work Q~ - ^o Veterinary Science o O o in o o O 00 0> in 00 O H CM CD 00 CO 0^ CTi H H 00 ERIC TABLE 7 SCORE 990»«edicine/UD. MEDIAN TERTIARY ENTRANCE SCORE FOR COURSES, QUEENSLAND INSTITUTIONS, 930 €^^r^i»l i>«ork/UQ SELECTED 1980-84 , . .»,/HQ ..rf-,./JCU (TE-«^25) b. business/DDI AE (TC+IS) Bocial Mork/JCU (TE-10) pach/DDIftE (TE-15) ERIC jr,7 165 W-gd.Studi«» 160 155 150 145 140 135 130 125 120 115 no 165 lOO 95 90 85 80 75 70 6S 60 55 50 45 NUMBER OF WOMEN ENROLLED IN SELECTED COURSES, UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND: 1980-1984 B-Ecoa.Econ B. Social Work B.Mgd.Surq TP 9:^ (-t^30) T]L_115_lllO) TE 905 (-5) " tE 990 (no chanq>) -f E 975 ( + 10 ) 980 (•♦-IS) TF- 980 (+20 ) jQ B. Engine ering O CO ERIC 5 t CO 1> CD ir-8 CD CD TABLE 9 NUdiiB OF WOMEN ENROLLED IN SELECTED COURSES, JAMES COOK UNIVERSITY, GRIFFITH UNIVERSITY AND DARLING DOWNS INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED EDUCATION: 1980-1984 MEDIAN TE INCREASE THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN EXPERIENCE John Steinle It would be gratifying in a parochial way to be able to claim that ^ the South Australian experience' for women in primary and secondary education is remarkably different from the current status quo in other states but that is not the case. The South Australian system has carried a similar historical and cultural burden and it is only comparatively recently that the evidence of that burden - our structures and attitudes - has been challenged by equal opportunities philosoph/. In South Australia the education system's efforts to remove structural barriers and discriminatory practices is done in the context of an overall government policy to promote equal opportunity. In this regard, the department has been at the forefront in the promotion and implementation of that policy, mainly because of the calibre of the leadersnip in the Women's Advisory Unit established in the mid-seventies. The department has been fairly diligent in the past decade to remove overt discriminatory barriers to women's participation on an equal basis in the workforce. Both the Sex Discrimination Act and changes in departmental policy have been instrumental in this regard. There have been some impor tan t achievements in removing structural barriers to women's opportunities for promotion in schools but, partly because of the overall squeeze on resources and promotional opportunity, at this stage there has not been a significant rise in the number of women occupying managerial positions at the school level. The structural changes which have been introduced include; • The introduction of ^open' positions. Over 50 per cent advertised principal and deputy principal positions are not filled through hhe inflexible ^order of promotion' system. This means that any person who has been assessed as eligible may apply for these positions. If teachers take leave of absence for child-rearing purposes and they are eligible for promotion their years of absence are now counted towards eligibility. T^ere has been a five-year exemption from the South Austral i an Sex Discrimination Act to allow women to er. ter secondary deputy positions. This is positive discrimination towards a more balanced gender profile in the leadership of secondary schools. It does, however, depend on a demand coming from the school communi ty for exemption. There is a policy of permanent part-time teaching, which gives flexibility to people with child-rearing and other commitments, without forcing a break in service. no - 100 - T7VBLE 3 PRINCIPALS (HEAD TEACHERS) OF SCHOOLS (INCLUDING ONE-TEACHER, HIGH AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS) 100 TABLE 4 TERTIARY ENTRANCE SCORES BY INSTITUTION, OF ALL FORM A APPLICANTS ADMITTED IN 1984 BY THE QUEENSLAND TERTIARY ADMISSIONS CENTRE ERIC Its COURSE Tc SCORE BRISBANE CAE CAPRICORNIA lAE < H W < o O Q GRIFFITH UNIVERSITY 1 JAMES COOK UNIVERSITY QUEENSIiAND INSTITUTi: OF TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND 990 2 9 9 1 10 15 330 980 989 7 3 8 4 8 38 300 970-979 12 8 14 3 14 50 241 960-969 17 7 16 2 15 60 222 950-059 23 4 13 4 24 76 1U5 940-949 33 10 21 9 19 80 145 930-939 45 9 20 7 18 95 136 920 929 46 8 14 10 17 83 108 910-919 42 13 23 15 21 63 116 900-909 53 10 27 7 13 66 106 105 890-899 69 9 22 10 14 4d 8aO-Bc9 73 14 38 19 21 61 72 870-879 89 8 32 50 14 65 860-865 08 11 25 50 29 65 850-B59 90 0 26 33 26 48 840-849 112 11 29 53 17 34 B30-839 73 13 23 d7 33 42 820-823 54 20 43 25 3 37 810-819 33 21 25 26 18 32 800-809 31 12 12 Id 24 15 790-7D9 19 4 i2 8 24 780-789 12 10 19 5 25 770-779 14 1 7 8 7 15 760-769 c u 18 c S 1 27 750-759 c D / 15 3 0 1 740-749 •J •J 9 lU Q O 730 739 2 2 720-729 1 2 710-719 1 2 700-709 3 690-699 1 3 680-689 1 4 670-679 1 6C&669 1 660'659 6 5 64&&49 2 600-C39 5 3 Spucul 18 1 2 109 64 4 1 TOTALS 1.104 2G4 558 514 460 1.194 2.067 McOr.M 855 850 860 B55 875 905 ' 965 Several thousand teachers have taken advantage of this arrangement • Parenting leave has been introduced, in addition to accouchement leave for teachers, although this cannot be granted automatically. It is compulsory for all interviewing panels to include an equal opportunities representative. Equal opportunity policy statements apply at all levels in the system. However, despite these measures there has not been a significant rise in the number of women occupying managerial positions. The publication Equals put out by the Women's Advisory Unit makes clear that on an overall percentage basis in 1984 only 6.6 per cent of all women in the teaching profession held promotional positions, compared with 32.3 per cent of men. As women made up 57 per cent of the teaching population and men Ai per cent this meant in effect, that men held 79 per cent of all promotional positions, and women 21 per cent. While at this point these statistics paint a somewhat dismal picture, what is of interest is that while women continue to predominate in the junior primary principals range, the gender balance in the previously Impervious secondary school promotions area is just beginning to change. Apart from the specific equal opportunity changes mentioned, the department has recently put into place a new corporate management structure of area (decentralised) decision making which has resulted in the appointment of a significant number of women to senior posts - director, assistant director -and superintendent levels. While this is not an example of improvement for women currently at the school level, some of these senior women have been drawn direct from primary principals positions. In addition, part and parcel of the new area structure is the provision of superintendents for equal opportunities. They belong to Student and Community Services (SACS) teams in each of the five area offices. (Four of the five assistant directors responsible for SACS are women. ) While it could be predicted that these changes in the corporate structure will have a positive influence on promotion of women at the field level, this theory remains to be tested. The final point to be made in the 'structural' context is that the South Australian Education Department is one of eight government departments in South Australia which have recently set up equal employment opportunity committees. The education aepartment's committee will be assisted by a senior project officer and will develop an equal employment opportunities management plan to cover public servants, teachers and ancillary staff, with the focus on disadvantaged groups, including women. This is an ambitious task and will involve senior officers in the Department, including the Director of Resources, Helga Kolbe. ERLC While these structural changes have been an achievemen^, , many women would argue that they do not go far enough and that positive discrimination, particularly during the current promotional squeeze, ought to be extended. This is where the far more complex and deep-seated problem of attitudes must be confronted. One of the reasons why Equals felt it necessary to underline the statistics on women's promotion was the evidence of a new mythology - that women were moving into all the promotional positions at the expense of talented, capable males. The backlash had begun. If an analogy is drawn between the 1952 and subsequent desegregation rulings in the United States then it can be predicted that the attitudinal barriers to the equal participation of women in the workplace will be of far greater significance than the legislative and policy barriers ever were. The attitudinal restraints not only come from a defensive (and powerful) male workforce, generally convinced of its superiority in all matters managerial. They also come from women themselves who, unlike their male counterparts, often lack encouragement from their male superiors and who constantly fight a mental battle about the worth of climbing into a male defined managerial world. These barriers are far more pervasive, subtle and resistant to change. Then of course therp are those who see the moves in the equal opportunities area to be a sign of weakness on the part of administrators. One instance will suffice. Within the education industry itself dissenting voices have be&n even rarer in Australia than among politicians. Senior bureaucrats have rarely been personally convinced by radical nostrums, but they have been terrified of being labelled as reactionary, as sexist, as racist, or indeed as fascist, if they resisted the spread of the Left Ascendancy. John iinle, the Director-General of Education in South Australia, IS a typical example of a political innocent ever willing to make concessions to pressure groups so that conflict and unpleasantness might be avoided. In a recent brochure entitled Equal Opportuhities , which was distributed by the thousand in South Australia, Mr. Steinle writes that, ^This Department recognises that particular groups are disadvantaged by our present education system. The largest of these groups is girls.' If he believes this to be true he ought to have resigned, since he rose to power in a system he condemns as discriminatory, but Mr. Steinle cannot seriously hold for one moment that girls in the schools of South Australia are disadvantaged educationally simply on account of their gender. Such statements are made in fear of the antagonism of the angry wimminfsic), just as gross statements about the educational discrimination suffered by all children whose mother tongue is not English are mere genuflections designed to show solidarity with groups which apparently wiald considerable political clout. (Partington, G. (1985) After the Sheridan Affair. Quadrant June.) ERLC - 102 - How can these people be challenged? Firstly, as mentioned above, there has been a significant increase in the number of women in the senior echelons in the department. There are distinct and positive differences in the way these women approach and carry out their jobs. They are in sufficient numbers to have an impact on the male definition of the ^successful' manager in education. As more women are able to enter senior management positions, one can anticipate more ^gender-inclusive' models of managemen t which are far more attractive to aspiring women in the field. Secondly, Professor Eileen Byrne has made reference to the need to ensure that women are given experiences in timetabling and other administrative ^male' provinces, ^not merely counselling and social infrastructure' responsibility areas. This prompts another perspective. As education systems belong to the broad category of human services perhaps they need to consider how they can place more value upon these vital ^social' responsibilities. In this context the South Australian system is currently examining ways of rewarding teachers who take on additional assignments within their schools for defined periods of time. This will provide an opportunity to elevate some of the school tasks traditionally considered less important and to reward outstanding teachers whose prospects are limited by the promotional bottleneck. Thirdly, professional development opportunities for women which enable them to have a greater personal and professional influence within the school environment are vital. The Women's Advisory Unit has done an enormous amount to support school-level change and in the long term this will have far greater impact than any top-down approach could achieve. Fourthly, education, not Just of girls but also of boys, must be relied upon if we are to overcome the att^tudinal problems inherent in our society. To close, while the South Australian experience is fledgling and as yet unreir.arkable in the area of women's promotion to senior school positions, tribute should be paid to the many women in the system who have worked solidly to gain attention for the issues and then to develop the ensuing equal opportunities policies which are now in place in the state. They have achieved much in a difficult climate when apart from the general resources squeeze, the needs of other disadvar/ aged groups are placing new d mands on the energies of educators. They have created a threshold, a beginning, and have shown the way forward. ERLC " 103 GENDER EQUITY POLICY IN THE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA Warren Louden The Education Department of Western Australia is committed to a policy of equal opportunity. It sees this as being achieved in two major ways. The first is through the overhaul of the staffing system to remove direct and indirect factors which may result in discrimination on gender grounds and ho redress current inequities through affirmative action. The second major direction which is long term in its application is concerned with changing the social expectations and attitudes of the community so that women may compete on equal terms with men for senior positions within the education department « Staffing Policies Prior to 1984 The education department employs some 13 250 fulltime teachers. Of these 5 500 are men and 6 200 are women employed in primary and secondary schools. Despite the fact that there are more women than men, men outnumber women by more than three to one so far as promotional positions are concerned. This imbalance would be far greater if the department has not retained sex linked deputy principal positions in all primary schools with eniolments of 300 or over and all secondary schools. The legitimacy of retaining sex linked positions may be challenged under the recently introduced equal opportunity legislation. The existence of sex linked positions has tended to disguise the Imbalance of men and women in senior promotional positions. In the senior administration, only one woman occupies a position at the director level. There are fourteen positions at or above this level. There are only eighteen women at the superintendent (inspector) level out of some 107 positions. Of these ten are in what might be termed sex stereotyped roles (junior primary, home economics, commerce, equal opportunity). There is no right of appeal against departmental decisions to appoint at this level. The imbalance however exists because the previous promotional history of male applicants gives them significant experiential advantage over f emal e appl i cants when appointments are being made. In addition males often have a qualifications advantage. Further evidence of the imbalance is evident if the position of principal is examined. There are over 500 male principals in primary schools but only 30 women. At the secondary level men outnumber women by 137 to five. It is clear that if any reasonable balance is to be achieved then there is need for affirmative action. For several years the department has been attempting to increase the number of women in senior positions. The results have not always been as anticipated. Two examples may serve to illustrate. Prior to 1982 there were separate promotional streams to primary and junior primary pr incipalships. With restricted opportunities in the latter area which was restricted to females, the decision was taken to integrate the lists to give women greater access to primary schools. The result was the filling of junior primary pr incipalships , almost Jt6 - 104 - all of which are in the metropolitan area, by males who gained experience with young children as teacher~in-charge of small schools and who were able to transfer to the more advantageously located Junior primary schools from country primary schools of like classification. A second device was the creation of senior assistant positions which required teachers to have special strengths in one or more or a variety of specialised areas, for example, early childhood or remedial education. It was believed ♦'hat these positions would be particularly attractive to women. However the bulk of the positions are now occupied by men. The Committee of Inquiry During 1983-84 Western Australian education was thoroughly examined by a Committee of Inquiry, chair'^d by Kim Beazley. The committee directed a great deal of attention to staffing matters and recommended the extension ot a system of promotion by merit. At present cnly two in five positions in secondary schools and one in three primary promotions are filled on the basis of merit. The committee proposed that by 1990 all promotional positions should be filled on merit, that merit should be based on formal evaluation, that formal evaluation should be based on the widest possible range of relevant data, including input from professional colleagues, and that all promotional positions should be filled for a limited term (five years). The person formerly filling the position would be eligible for reappointment under this recommendation. The Beazley Committee also endorsed the principle of affirmative action. The recommendation relating to this provision was that women receive at least 50 per cent of all promotions over the next five years or at least should be appointed in proportion to the number of applicants. Implementing the Recommendations A joint working party consisting of departmental and union officers was charged with the responsibility for advising the Minister on the implementation uf Beazley recommendations. The committee met frequently during 1984 with the intention of implementing changes on a pilot basis in 1985 with effect from 1 January 1986. In reviewing the existing system of promotion in primary schools it became clear that geographic mobility has be.i to the appointrant of a number of women but they still comprise ci .y a very small percentage of high school principals. A^f f irmativf? Action Provisio ns The working party, in deciding what should be recommended to the Director -General, realised that to change the existing distribution of principalshi s within primary schools within the five year period specified by the Beazley Report, strong affirmative action measures would be n<" - that 50 per cent of all promotions should go to women. It did so on two grounds. The first was that any scheme based on quotas was inconsistent with the concept of promotion by merit. Further the view was taken that since women had been denied promotion in the p^st the 50 per cent quota might give less positions to women than if merit was the only criterion applied. Pragmatically also the view was taken hhat if this were to be done there may be insufficient applications, particularly for the more remote schools. Instead of moving to a quota system, therefore, the Committee instead chose to give increased eligibility to women for a period of five years while extending tha promotion by merit scheme to all promotional positions within the Education Department of Western Australia. Difficulties in Achieving More Women in Management The woiJcing party's recommendation is that once a ful] promotion by merit scheme is implemented the requirement that all applicants for special promotion should indicate their willingness to serve wherever required will be phased out. While on the face of it this will increase the likelihood of well qualified, experienced and capable women achieving promotion without the need for extended periods/ of country service, in fact, it is doubtful if this will occur. The reason lies in the priority which is given to teachers who are transferring from country locations over those who are being newly appointed to promotional positions. While this requirement remains, and it is necessary to retain it because of the large nu^-ber of very remote schools in Western Australia which must be st.iffed by teachers of high quality, it is unlihely that the number of women who will achieve principal positions will increase dramatically. It may be that some form of incentive payment or accelerated promotion for those willing to take positions in remote locations may reduce this problem. However, there is a good deal of evidence which suggests that this is unlikely. It therefore seems that until such time as community attitudes change to the extent that it is socially acceptable for the male and family to accompany the female family member who must undertake country service then women will continue to be under- represented at the school management level. Alternatively womeii may commute from reasonable accessible country locations as males have done for many years. It is in the bringing about of changes in community attitudes that the schools program described below is concerned. As mentioned earlier, women have difficulty in competing for the most senior Jobs because of lack of relevant experience or possibly qualifications. In the recent past there has been a conscious effort to ensure that women are considered for travel and study scholarships which will help redress this situation. Many previously existing structures which have inhibited the promotion of women have been identified and removed in recent years. However, there are many hidden and often subtle disincentives to women to seek promotional positions. It is to identify these with a view to their removal th%t an Equal Employment Opportunity Branch has recently been set up within the department. This section, which will work directly to a policy committee chaired by the Deputy Director-General of Education, will not only ERIC - 108 - identify and recommend measures designed to increase the number of women in promotional positions but will monitor progress towards this end and will be involved i.. ensuring that women have access to the training opportunities which encourage them to seek promotion. Curriculum Reforin and Women's Role in Educational Management A strong commitment to curriculum reform pertaining to gender equity is an important accompaniment to industrial and personnel policies aimed at making schools more equitable workplaces. In the long term a significant and equitable number of women in management positions can only be assured if there exists in society an unbiased faith in the abilities of both men and women. In this context the current commitment of the Education Department of Western Australia to equality of educational outcomes for male and female students is relevant. Gender equity policy in curriculum in Western Australian schooly seeks equality of outcomes for male and female students in areas such as levels of self esteem and self confidence, patterns of participation and achievement in all formal and informal curriculum offerings and ability to be economically, socially and personally independent and competent. Adoption of such a policy has two important consequences for the likely role of women in management in primary and secondary education. Firstly, commitment to gender equity for students seeks to ensure that the coming generation of teachers who are currently students in our schools, experience schools as places providing equal scope for personal and career satisfaction for males and females. Hopefully when these youngsters become teachers affirmative action will not be necessary. Secondly, it is clear that sexist policies and attitudes are prevalent in schools which delimit the educational experiences of girls and boys. These policies and attitudes have at their root the same factors which cause the lack of opportunities experienced by men as teachers. The professional development process pursued by teachers when working on school policy to benefit their students has been found to generate an understanding or consciousness of gender equity issues which bears fruit for women in the staffing and duty allocation within schools. In other words, the environment in which counter-sexist education is emerging is itself becoming less sexist for female staff. In Western Australia, the lynch-pin of curriculum policy on gender equity is that every school will be rxpected to develop a comprehensive, across-fche-curr iculum action plan aimed at stimulating equality of outcomes. Each teacher will be expected to monitor his or her own classroom and to develop strategies for countering sexist practice. Support for the process in schools was increased in 1984, with the establishment of an Equal Opportunity Branch headed by a substantive superintendent. Currently 5.5 centrally-based professions! officers provide a consultancy and resource base for schools. A Policy Advisory Committee on Equal Opportunity, chaired by the Deputy ERLC Director-General was established. Other key elements of the education department's program in this area include: Appointment of co-ordinators of school policy on gender equity to a number of pilot secondary schools. Each has 0.2 time teach2r relief. Conduct of a series of seminars for teams of teachers from primary and secondary scho- le to equip them with skills and knowledge needed to commence and maintain a whole school approach to gender equity policy. Teacher relief is provided for these seminars . Conduct of a series of teacher in-servire courses (mostly with teacher relief) focusing on key issues in gender equity. In 1985 topics addressed include the secondary school sports program, self esteem development, classroom dynamics and girls and computers. Development of a collection of counter-sexist teaching resources for use in schools. Production of teaching and other resources when needed (Appendix 7). Establishment or harnessing of communication channels throughout the system to stimulate debate on the topic. (This includes running an annual Women in Education Conference.) Provision consultancy service? to schools on this issue. Provision of support for adoption of a genc'ar inclusive perspective to general processes of policy develonment, and curriculum materials production throughout the department. Supporting a very innovative action research/teacher development project entitled *Person-to-Person' on the topic of classroom dynamics. This project has support from the Projects of National Significance Program. Conclusion Western Australia, like other states, recognises the educational and industrial concerns arising from the imbalance of women and men in management positions in schools. Western Australia is, perhaps, unique in the strength of its current commitment to positive discrimination for women. Even before state affirmative action legislation was enacted this year, the education department was firmly committed to this program. A promising start has been made in Western Australia to achieving more equal represantation of women in management positions. However, it should be recognised that shifts in pol icy somet Imes create less real change in the first instance than the rhetoric promises. This has certainly been our experience in Western Australia. It is essential therefore that efforts bx- continued in both the short term through affirmative action programs and in the long term. It is likely that until a generation of girls have had the experience of regarding themselves as equal there will not be achievement of the goal of equity irrespective of gender. ERLC - 110 - WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN TASMANIA Beverley Richardson , Margaret Lonergan and Jan Edwards The Current Position of Women In Tasmania the proportion of males and females in the staffing quota for the teaching force is detailed in Table 1. TABLE 1 PROPORTION OF MALE AND FEMALE TEACHERS » 1934 Level Males Females % % Primary education 76 24 Secondary education 42 58 Special education 75 25 TOTAL 59 41 Tables 2 to 5 detail the senior positions in the primary, secondary, tertiary and services/administration sec*"or . TABLE 2 SENIOR POSITIONS IN THE PRIMARY SECTOR Level Females Total Percentage Female Senior teacher 188 265 71 Vice-principal 31 118 26 Infant miBtress/master 36 36 100 Principal 27 182 15 1^-3 111 - ERIC TABLE 3 SENIOR POSITIONS IN THE SECONDARY SECTOR Females Tota^ Percentage Female Senior master/mistress 100 451 22 Vice-principal 15 79 19 Principal 2 54 4 TABLE 4 SENIOR POSITIONS IN THE SPECIAL EDUCATION SECTOR Level Females Males Percentage Female Senior teacher 14 17 82 Vice-principal 1 2 50 Principal 8 16 50 TABLE 5 SENIOR POSITIONS IN SERVICES/ADMINISTRATION Females Total Percentage Female Senior education 8 31 26 officers Supervisors 3 15 20 Principal education 2 14 14 officer Officers paid above 5 28 18 principal level j I I The one area of seniority where females hold about as many ^ positions as could be expected from their numbers in the teaching force is that of senior teacher in primary schools. I I The Department is conscious of the need to equalise the distribution of senior positions. The hope is that the senior teachers will be applying and getting future Jobs as vice-principals, ! and, eventually, as principals. This cannot be a rapid process. I Reference to Table 1 will show that if 76 per cent of vice-principals were female (the proportion of females in the teaching force) it would be 90 people. At the moment there are 31 female vice-principals, which leaves a shortfall of 59 people. In the past few years, only two to five vice-principal positions have been adverLised in the primary section each year. Even if all future positions were to be filled by women in the ratio 7:3 it is easy to see that the process of equalisation will be a very long one. The other tables indicate that there is a long way to go before the proportions of males and females in the teaching force are reflected in the senior positions. The Promotions Proceas All promotable positions in Tasmania are advertised openly and have been for nearly twenty years. There are no barriers and any person may apply for any position. The main criterion is suitability. However, in practice anyone applying for a position must have a current report and assessment. The report is written by a Principal or other senior officer, and this is the only access a Principal has to the Promotions Committee. The assessment is given by the appropria' superintendent or Inspector and this is the only access the superintendent has to the Promotions Commi ttee . The Promotions Committee consists of one elected primary and one elected secondary representative from the Tasmanian Teachers'Federation, one nominated primary and one nominated secondary representative from the department plus a department nominated chairperson. In 1985 the chairperson is male and there are two female representatives and two male representatives. Balance of Applications and Appointments In 1984, 1050 male and 225 female applications were received to fill 103 positions, and 79 positions were filled by males and 24 by females. From January to June 1985, 719 male and 126 female applications have been made for 46 positions which have been filled by 33 men and 13 women. It is interesting to note that for four vice- principal positions there were 168 male and 21 female applications. One was filled by a man and three by women. Table 6 lists perc^-ntages of male and female applications and appointments in 1984/85. K5 113 - ERIC TABLE 6 APPLICATIONS AND APPOINTMENTS BY SEX, 1984 Male Female * Applications 1984 % Appointments 1984 82.35 76.69 17.65 23.30 * Applications 1985 X Appointments 1985 85.08 71.73 14.91 28.26 ERIC The Mobility Study The study of the mobility of teachers in Tasmania was completed in 1983. The research was conducted over a period of two and a half years and sought to discover what options for mobility, other than promotion, teachers would support. The study was a combination of group discussions of representative groups, individual interviews and a questionnaire distributed to a 20 per cent random sample of teachers at all levels. The response rate was 80 per cent of ueable material. There were fifteen options presented and of these five were strongly supported in general and in personal application: master teacher (same difficulty in implementing) task-related staffing paid positions of responsibility automatic review after ten years in a position mandatory retirement at age 60 There were differences between male and female responses in: (more female support) permanent part-tine positions task-related staffing automatic review after ten years at one school or in one position and (more male support) temporary paid posts of respo.;sibility secondment to industry and commerce interstate exchanges. 114 - There were systems-wide perceptions of how to obtain promotion and these were not collated on a male/female basis but they are interesting, nonetheless: being male having a university degree moving between schools not spending more than five years in one school being involved in further study through inservice or post- graduate work being heavily i^ivolved in extra-curricular activities in the school and the community making a usef^Jl and valued '^nr tr ibut ions at school and systems levels having a string sense of a career timetable, career map and strategy, indicating goa'.s and how they intend to accomplish them obtaining the first promotion in a minimum time (approximately five years) being lucky obtaining and mainta* ling a sponsor or sponsors which may mean conforming to the views of the principal or other superiors willing to wjrk in un'ieslrable work locations gaining administrative type experience being seen as o competent class teacher. Reason for seeking promotion The following main reasons, which do not appear in any particular order of relevant importance, were given by interviewees regarding why they seek promotion. For some teachers promotion appears to be necessary if thev are to satisfy the motives which brought them into teaching. The spur to seeking promotion may come from the accumulation of experience which gives teachers confidence that they can do a good Job at a higher level on (he promotion ladder. One motivation is the wish to earn more money. Some, as a result of observing their colleagues, come to the conclusion that they could do a better Job than those who have already achieved promotion. Some seek to establish new professional challenges due to a feeling of boredom in their current post. Some seek promotion a? a matter of pride or because they feel that if they do not seek promotion it is a public admission of Incompetence. Some apply for promotion after receiving encouragement from professional peers who say such things as 'you can do it' or 'we think you would make a good senior teacher'. Some want the public systems level recognition of competence which promotion implies. - 115 - Some want the increased influence and power which promotion implies. It would appear that the most important reasons for teachers seeking promotion were: wish to maximise their influence and power within their school and/or the education system with a view to improving that school and/or system; wish to have more freeedom in their work; need to establish new challenges in *-^r^^r to relieve or reduce the threat of boredom. T eachers in Promotions Positions Table 7 details the status of teachers in senior positions in 1984 including all full-time personnel in schools, colleges, and administrative and service branches (including the Division of Recreation) at 2 July, 1984, but excluding those with the status of superintendent or higher, and all Division of Further Education personnel . TABLE 7 STATUS OF SENIOR TEACHERS, 2 JULY, 1984 Male Female Total Principals 218 40 258 Infant mistresses 32 32 Vice-principals 94 46 140 Senior masters, mistresses 349 86 435 Senior teachers 75 175 250 Regional guidance officers 2 1 3 Senior guidance officers 6 4 10 Supervisors 11 3 14 Principal education officers 10 2 12 Senior education officers 18 7 25 783 396 1179 TOTALS: 2239 3203 5482 Self-esteem Programs in Tasmania; a case study In Tasmania i priority has been placed on the need to change attitudes and awareness levels of people in schools. Tue department is trialling a significant strategy for bringing about changes in relations between women and men and girls and boys. It i j an extremely popular, we 1 1-r ecei vod program supported by children, teachers and parents. - 116 - In 1983, Tasmania was funded for a Cowaonuealth Schools Contwission project of National Significance. The program was initially aimed at girls who were perceived as being 'at risk'. It involved trialling strategies designed to increase their self image and to help them feel that they were in control of their own lives. It began in five high schools and one district school with two part- time project officers. In the early days, the project officers were often seen as ^pushy' women with some kind of grievance about opportunities for girls. Optimistically the program was called Wings. In 1985, the program has taken off and is growing rapidly. Self- esteem programs are funded and supported by the Participation and Equity Program. They are for boys as well as girls. Non-government schools are also involved through the Commonwealth Schools Commission* s Professional Development Program and its School Improvement Scheme. The Professional Development Program also provides in-depth training courses for teachers in the area of interpersonal relations. The self esteem project has one full-time officer and two part-time field workers. Until 1985, courses have been taken in single-sex groups. A few schools that have been involved longe- are working with mixed groups. Some men are taking these school -based self-esteem courses with students. Usually, they begin by helping students and in the process learn a great deal about themselves and their relationships with others, particularly women. The projei^t assumes that men and boys must also be involved in efforts to change attitudes and behaviours. Some Emerging Trends During the two and a half years of the project's operation several trends have emerged: Women who have been part of the staff development programs have a better sense of their own worth. There is an improved sense of team work for greater numbers of ptaff. The project makes it easier for teachern to be involved in group decision-making processes. Factions and cliques in staffrooms have become harder to sustain. Some schools are beginning to look at their internal arrangements and organisational patterns. Leadership tasks are being reallocated. I/omen are being given a high profi> while men are being seen in a more caring capacity. Parents are supportive and interested and in several cases take part in the inservice programs. Parents report better relationships with their children, particularly daughters who become less surly and better able to listen, to talk calmly and to reason. Girls feel confident about expressing their point of view in class. They do not blush and feel as embarrassed as they did before. ERIC -nil^B Boys at first are startled to find that they are competing for the teachers' time. Some schools are beginning to feel that the work is valuable and they are seeking to have it included in the normal budget. How to further mainstream the strategies into the curriculum is being investigated. There are signs that Vings is already beginning to change the secondary school environment and make it more empathetic towards women and their experiences and contribution. The program is bringing about a climate of acceptance where a wide range of issues relating to women and girls can be addressed sensibly. Appropriate strategies such as these for working at school-level change must be found if women are to avoid frustration and antagonism in their efforts to achieve equality. Reference Education Department of Tasmania (1984), Wings - A pilot project to increase self-esteem in girls. Tasmania Government Printer. J CO ERIC - 118 - WOMEN IN EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT IN THE NORTHERN TERRITORY Lyn Powierza The CompoBition of the Teaching Service The evidence in the composition of the Northern Territory Teaching Service is that there is the same hierarchical ranking of women and men that is reflected in teaching services throughout Australia, even though the Northern Territory Teaching Service is the most recently formed and the traditional barriers of continuous service and seniority are not present within the promotion system. D^affpite the fact that women constitute 71 per cent of teachers at the Band 1 level (that is, the classroom teacher level) their proportion decreases dramatically in the move up the seniority ladder (see Table 1). TABLE 1 PERCENTAGE OF WOMEN AT EACH BAND LEVEL OF THE NORTHERN TERRITORY TEACHING SERVICE, JUNE 1985 Position % Female Teacher Band 1 71 Teacher Band 2 primary 57 Teacher Band 2 secondary 44 Teacher Band 3 primary 29 Teacher Band 3 secondary 14 Teacher Band 4 primary 21 Teacher Band 4 secondary 21 Note Band 1 equates with classroom teacher Band 2 equates with senior teacher Band 3 equates with deputy principal Band 4 equated with principal The Northern Territory has had a system of peer assessment leading to eligibility for promotion since the Commonwealth Teaching Service was first introduced in 1973. This is a particularly time-consuming process as far as individual classroom teachers are concerned so there is a suggestion that this mitigates against women in the sense that *c is too taxing on the limited time available from family responsibilities and professional concerns. The average age of the population is much younger in the Northern Territory than in other parts of Australia and this means that there are larger numbers of young children. A very high proportion of mothers of young children work, due in part to the very high costs of living. Teachers are no exception to this and the demands of child rearing are very dominant. ERIC As seniority or country service are not prerequisites for promotion it is my suspicion, borne out by evidence which emerged in Shirley Sampson's research, that women see themselves in the role oi 1 119 - the nurturers within the family structure and pay the consequence professionally. However, this is by no means the whole of the story. Women do not appear to be under-represented in the professional associations and so are apparently prepared to make the requisite time commitments to be involved in activites they see as relevant and worthwhile. But within the advisory and administrative segments of the Department women are under-represented (Table 2). TABLE 2 MALES AND FEMALES IN ADVISORY POSITIONS IN THE DEPARTMENT, JUNE 1985 Poultion Female Male % Female Education officers 19 29 40 Senior education officers 19 21 48 Principal education officers 4 14 22 Superintendents 2 14 12 Why so Few? Some of the reasons that women do not try for promot ion are proffered in the following few lines. Many do not apply for office-based positions because they prefer school hours and holidays, as these enable them to cope with their family responsibilities. Many wish to remain in the school situation because that is where they see themselves having the most effective role. Possibly they have little idea about office-based responsibilities or lack the confidence to see themselves in an v%dvisory position. Whatever the reasons they continue to give dedicated service in the classrooms and are largely ignorant of the wider spheres of interest within the department. Would it be too naive to suggest that they do not understand the department and therefore do not progress within it? It appears that many women are not aware of what extra responsibilities are involved in senior positions at either the school or head office level. It could be that very often they would find the senior positions and responsibility less taxing than the constant, demanding attention and concentration needed within the classroom. Women in the main centres of Darwin and Alice Springs have the opportunity to attend women in management and women at work courses which are conducted under the auspices of the Equal Opportunity Unit within the Public Service Commissioner's Office. There has been a lot of interest ahown by women in education in the courses which give a historical perspective of women in the work force and concentrate on developing confidence and career paths for participants. 120 - ERIC The Northern Territory has a very high turnover of staff on a regular basis. It is not difficult for women to become the head of a department or to take up a senior position if they are interested - often there is no competition. However, once in the job there are assumptions made about the level of knowledge. It is assumed that promotees automatically know everything they should by virtue of having the position. There is a real need for the development of seminars to be run at schools so that seniors who need professional instruction into the mysteries of the school timetable and other vagaries of school administration can receive such information in a professional way. Women often tend to blame themselves rather than the system for what they do not know. Is this because of their inexperience and low self confidence? Men are also affected but because of expectations and relationships have a better idea of how to seek information. Teachers in the Northern Territory participate in course writing. Often two or three days are set aside to produce a course. It is difficult to feel happy with the results and participants often feel inadequate. The majority of teachers are not trained in curriculum writing and without bridging and information courees tend to feel as if they have been thrown into very deep water. When women see others wrestling with heavy responsibilities without adequate support it is understandable that they lose interest in assuming similar burdens. Women are discouraged by a male hierarchical system. It is difficult to imagine that their problems will be recognised as important. They could give each other valuable support through groups or committees within the school or work place wherein common areas could be identified, discussed and acted upon. It is the perception of some that one of the ironies of life is that female principals can be harder on women than on men - perhaps because they have set themselves such high standards. The Future Changes have begun. The responsibility for equal opportunities has been included in a superintendent's position. A position of education for girls officer has been established and that person has done much to show that girls are at the same disadvantage within the Northern Territory system as they are in other places. There are moves afoot to have an equal opportunity representative on selection panels. The department has declared itself to be an equal opportunity employer. Every selection panel must have both sexes represented on it. It is proposed that organisations and associations be asked to nominate both a woman and a man when putting forward nominees for committees so that a reasonable ^alance can be established in the departmental committee structure. A working party is looking at the training needs of promotees. There remains much to be done, including the development of an equal employment opportunity policy, giving particular attention to the training needs of women. The attitudes of both women and men will also have to change towards each other in society at large. Women have to seo» themselves in leadership roles and strive to get there. There is no doubt that they have the ability. The challenge is to find the strategies to enable them to utilise their full potential. ERIC - 121 . WOMEN IH EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT IN THE AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY Barry Price Equal Employment Opportunity Policy As a commonwealth statutory authority, the ACT Schools Authority has accorded a high priority to achieving Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO). The stage of ensuring that EEO becomes a routine part of management and supervision functions and setting of targets in the implementation of objectives has been reached. The Authority's emphasis in accelerating the progress of women into middle and senior management positions is through personal professional development. The Authority has moved to involve women in educational management through its EEO Program. This program has the full support of the Authority as a result of its decision in 1984. At that time the Authority, which is the participative policy-making body (the term is also used for the government school system), made a commitment within the framework of the merit principle to: policies and practices which do not discriminate against individuals on the Lasis of political affiliation, race, colour, ethnic origin, social origin, religion, sex, sexual preference, marital status, pregnancy, age, physical or mental disability or any other unjustified ground; a continuing process of monitoring policies and practices to determine whether they have direct or indirect discriminatory effect on its employees; the introduction of affirmative action programs by which groups 3een as disadvantaged may achieve equality of employment opportunity within the Authority. At the same time that the Authority adopted its policy statement in relation to EEO, it also defined the concepts of affirm tive action, discrimination and sexual harassment in line with the definitions used in commonwealth legislation as follows. Affirmative action consists of a planned, outcomes oriented series of programs and changes designed to overcome indirect and systemic discrimination embedded in apparently neutral practices and procedures. Discrimination occurs when a distinction is made resulting in one person or group being less favourably treated than others in similar circumstances. Direct discrimination in employment occurs when a person or group of people is specifically denied a benefit or opportunity on the basis of a personal characteristic irrelevant to the Job requirements. Indirect discrimination in employment occurs when a policy, rule or practice which may appear neutral and is applied ERLC 1:^ - 122 - impartially nas an adverse outcome for a substantially larger number of one group than another thus reducing the chance that a member of the particular group will benefit. Systemic discrimination is a term which describes the system of discrimination created by a network of rules and practices which constitute indirect discrimination. Systemic discrimination is self perpetuating because each discriminatory action which disadvantages one group simultaneously s'/rves to advantage another group. Therefore these processes are cumulative and self reinforcing. Direct discrimination contributes to systemic discrimination through the cumulative effects of discriminatory attitudes and bel ief s. Sexual harassment is a form of discrimination which covers a range of unsolicited behaviour which constitutes a deliberate verbal or phys ical affront of a sexual nature agai nst another person. It includes such unwelcome actions as sexual advances » requests for sexual favours or other conduct of a sexual nature such as comments or physical contact. Where the recipient of such behaviour has reason to believe that a rejection of the advance, refusal of the request or objection to the conduct would disadvantage the recipient in his/her employment or possible employment, the recipient may seek redress through grievance procedures. The Chief Education Officer (CEO) was given the respons? bill I ty for the achievement of EEO due to his functions as the re'-'evant authority in relation to staffing under the Public Service Act and the Commonwealth Teaching Service (CTS) Act. The Schools Authority defined the following duties for the CEO: devise programs to achieve the aims of anti-discrimination legislation; communicate policies and programs to all employees; collect and record appropriate information as part of the continuing review of personnel practices within the Authority, including recruitment techniques, selection criteria, training and staff development programs, promotion and transfer policies and patterns and conditions of service with a view to the identification of any discriminatory practices; set goals or targets, where these may be reasonably determined, against which the success of ^ a management plan in achieving its aims may be assessed; propose strategies for the evaluation of policies and programs; and report regularly to the Authority on equal employment opportunity matters. To assist the CEO the Authority gave formal recognition to the EEO Committee which had been formed in July 1983 at the time when the ir.5 - 123 - Band 2 position of EEO Coodinator was established. The Authority decided that this committee should be chaired by the Senior director (Resources) and should also include: a nominee of the CEO two ACT Teachers' Federation nominees; two Australian Public Service (APS) union nominees; the non-sexist education consultant; the EEO coordinator (executive member). The terms of reference for the committee are to Provide advice to senior officers of the Authority in relation to: . development, implementation and review of the EEO management plan for CTS and APS staff; priorities and targets in the implementation of objectives; evaluation of initiatives when implemented; data on the employment of women and disadvantaged groups as the basis for planning future initiatives; reports from the CTS and APS coordinators; . other relevant matters which arise in the context of EEO objectives . The committee meets monthly and works closely with the relevant flections of the Office of the Public Service Board. It alflo repo. t3 bimonthly to the CEO and flenior cfficerfl. The initial operational objectives, which were devised by the EEO Committee early in 1984 as a means of progressing towards the achievement of equal employment opportunity were commended by thp Authority. They are as follows: to achieve senior management commitment to the objectives of equal employment opportunity for all Authority staff; to promote management understanding of, and cooperation in, the implementation of the Authori'.y's EEO policy pertainir to APS and CTS staff; . to ensure that EEO r e-po ,s i bi 1 i t i es become a routine part of management and supervision functions; . to eliminate all c 1 sc r imi na • ory practices in selection and promotion procedures; to ensure proportional representation of women on all Authority committees, task forces, working parties, selection panels appeals committees; . to increase the numbers of women in promotions positions and declPion making roles; ERIC - 124 - to acquaint all staff with their rights and responsibilities under the Sex Discrimination Act 1984; to provide appropriate grievance procedures for dealing with alleged discriminatory behaviour; to ensure that data on m'lle and female employees is kept systematically in a format that enables data to be retrieved readily for research; to raise awareness of the i&suee and forms of sexual harassment of both staff and students in educational institutions. Profile of Women in ACT Educational Management As the following statistics illustrate, the ACT has been typical of education systems in its assumption that women do not aspire to careers in education management. Only one of the top seven positions in the Authority's office is held by a woman and only two of twelve section heads are women. Sixty-seven per cent of all personnel in the Commonwealth Teaching Service (CTS) are women and in the primary area 86 per cent of all positions are held by women. Women comprise 70 per cent of all Band 1 positions, 52 per cent of all Band 2 positions, 32 per cent of all Band 3 positions and 10 per cent of all Band 4 positions in the CTS. There are no women in Band 4 secondary school positions. Only five of the hundred positions at Band 3 and 4 levels in secondary schools are heJ.d by ^omen. Three women from primary backgrounds currently hold Band 4 secondary classified positions in the office. Two women holding Band 3 secondary positions hold eligibility for Band 4 positions. Eligibility has been a prerequisite for promotion to a substantive position at each band level in the CTS. Four years of recognised teacher training is a prerequisite for substantive promotion to positions classified as secondary at the Sand 3 and Band 4 levels. Table 1 sets out the position for personnel having eligibility but no cubstantive position. ERIC TABL E 1 TEACHERS WITH ELIGIBILITY BUT NO SUBSTANTIVE POSITION, MARCH 1985 Level Sex Pr imary Secondary Total Band 2 Women 119 Men 99 Band 3 Women 19 10 29 Men 17 46 63 Rand 4 Women 10 2 12 Men 10 18 28 ERIC Barriers to EEO Some of the major barriers to be overcome in the EEO program are: the effects of the eligibility system; the insensitiv: ty to EEO issues of selection panels; the assumptions of senior management (particularly in secondary schools) in relation to women's career aspirations; the number of promotion positions likely to be available; lack of mobility between pre-school/pr imary and the secondary sectors . Overcoming the Barriers El Igibi ] ity . Senior staff no longer regard eligibility as mandatory and have considered proposals to remove it as a prerequisite for promotion. However, the ACT Teachers' Federation currently has a policv in support of its retention. Recent conferences indicate that just short of a majority of federation members are dissatisfied with it. The strongest justification for replacing the eligibility procedure with direct application for positions is that eligibility adds to the existing selection barrier for women seeking promotion. This is possibly the biggest single barrier to speedy implementation of a program designed to see women more influential in educational management . Selection procedures for all vacant APS and CTS positions. Selection criteria for all APS and CTS positions now include an EEO criterion. All advertisements for positions contain the information that the authority is an EEO employer. All selection panels receive a briefing on their EEO responsibilities and provide the EEO coordinator with a report on progress toward the achievement of EEO at the end of each semester. Each panel contains a mix of men and women. Guidelines for selection panels are being developed to: alert panels to indirect discrimination (anecdote method); ■■*8 - 126 - put emphasis on future potential as well as past experience in interpreting the concept of ^merit'; clarify the relevance of ^personal qualities' to overall efficiency for candidates in designated groups. The barriers which are still to be overcome include: effective staff training for all potential selection panel nominees ; provision of women nominees on selection panels in proportion to their representation within the service; the clarif icati on of the concept of merit in a situation where seniority is a criterion required by the CIS Act in appeals when candidates are equally efficient. Career aspirations , Much has yet to be done to adapt work patterns and career structures to accommodate family responsibilities. There has not been a systematic survey of the assumptions of senior educational managers in ACT schools. However, women setting out their grievances in relation to discrimination in eligibility and promotion procedures have frequently mentioned these a.'sumptions . During 1984 a workshop on EEO issues was held for Authority members and senior Office staff. In March 1985, ri structures of the union movement. Also in 1980 a book Hear Thi3, Brother by Jane Stageman, which looked at women worker 3 and union power, included a study of trade union branches in tue Hull area of Britain. She drew the link between employment and unions and deduced that the : ....hierarchies of trad«3 unions reflect the hierarchies in employment. Women are accustomed to being at ♦-.he bottom of the pile, behaving deferentially towards men and expecting little or no advancement. This is bound to shape their aspirations and expectations in trade union affairs. The attitudes of women in the Hull study indicated that obstacles to union involvement by women were of a practicd, institutionalised and male domination nature. Some of the factors given in encouraging participation included having union meetings held in work time, simplifying union matters. Increasing the availability of information and fewer home responsibilities (see Table 4). 1 >T ^ ERLC - 132 - TABLE 4 FACTORS WHICH 108 FEMALE RESPONDENTS FROM THE FIVE TRADE UNION BRANCHES IN THE HULL AREA BELIEVED WOULD ENCOURAGE PARTICIPATION IN UNION ACTIVITIES, 1980 PERSONAL No. % UNION No. % Fewer home responsibil- ities 51 55 Meetings held in more convenient places 34 37 Giving UD other activities 15 1^ Meetings held at a different time 11 12 Feeling more confident 41 44 Meetings held in work time 59 64 Going to meetings with someone else 34 37 Make union matters easier to understand 57 62 Mv hnnhAnH affreeinff^ to m6 being active in the union 11 12 Provide childcare facilit- ies so I could come to meetings 5 5 Knowing that women can ^e as coDpeteiit as men in union affairs 37 40 Mj»*kef more information available about how union work 52 56 Male union members giving me a chance to eir my vi evis 25 27 Organise more social avents 14 15 Having greater intere^'c in union affairs 52 56 Running education course 22 24 Nothing would make it easier 10 11 Creating opportunities so women could get together and discuss matters of interest to them 43 46 Other 4 4 Other 3 3 Source: Ccote» A. and Kellner, P. (1980) Wear This, Brother^ Women Workers and Union Power. An interesting and unfortunately common aspect of Stageman's work is the difficulties faced by women union activists. Because of their rarity, women whose heads emerge above the crowd are swiftly burdened with responsibility, and they often havG extra commitments (to women's meetings as well as to their families), on top of all their regular union duties. The higher up the ladder they go, the more isolated they become and the tougher it gets to prove they can do the Job. It is common for women who hold senior offices to find they ERIC - 133 - have no more time for their equal rights or women's advisory committees. Some who get near the top, having fought for most of their lives to 'make it' on men's terms, get comfy as token women and lose sight of their siste'-s' need for a helping hand. Some hold on to their commitments but are driven in their isolation to degrees of paranoia and over-caution. These problems will only diminish if the support network grows stronger; if more women emerge in senior positions; and if union hierarchies keep in much closer touch with the grass roots. In 1981 Kay Hargreave's book Women at Uork again pointed to the under-representation of women in unions, showing thirty-two unions where women members predominated and showing that they were not adequately represented in the power structure. She further contrasted the high level of -,nion membership among women with a lack of knowledge and lack of positive lesponse regarding unions. She said in her book that women activists in unions ...still encounter ditiiculties with sexism in the form of sexist attitudes, structures that discourage wor^en's involvement and issues that do not reflect the priorities for women in the workforce. In 1985 Beryl Ashe in a discussion paper, on Affirmcti^e Action in Trade Onions outlined some reasons for the lack of involvement of women in unions. The responses to the survey she distributed led her to conclude that the following were major barriers to women becoming involved in trade unions : domestic responsibilities; lack of confidence; lack of interest; negative attitudes of family members. These barriers coincide with reasons elucidated in the few previous studies. Overcoming Barriers In overcoming these barriers the union movement must address itself not only to the practical barriers of involvement, such as times of meetings and the provision of quality child c^.e, but also the institutional and attitudinal barriers which have been referred to. In recognising that capable women do not, for a range of reason^ choose to become actively involved in their unions it mush also be recognised that current union structures do mitigate against women. There are valid reasons for saying that unions as we know them in the teacher labour movement are hierarchical, structuraUy and procedurally formal and dominated by male colleagues. They are certainly no place for the faint-hearted. The problems associated with gaining power or participation in decision-making bodies of unions are noL always because male colleagues have planned it that way. The confidence, experience and ERJC .i,4-J'^7 ability of women to fit other responsibilities into the time commitments union involvement requires have precluded many women from participating fully in the past. In 1977 a paper produced by the Working Women's centre suggested that lack of confidence was a real barrier in women's involvement in trade unions. Given these factors, the principles of affirmative action are as necesciary and relevant to the trade union movement as they are in the workforce and education sectors generally. The difficult task of implementing change has to be faced so as to ensure a union movement which is truly representative of its membership. While some women members of the ATF believe that the wheels of progress do not move with enough haste there has been some progress during the past decade and the issue of representation of women is one which is permanently on the agendas of the ATF and its affiliates. It is an issue however which is not always ...et with enthusiasm. The ATF has recently formulated policy on affirmative action in unions and established a women's action program • The direction of efforts to increase the representation of women is throt^gh educative programs aimed at encouraging increased participation by women, although discussion still includes the merit of constitutional requirements which ensure the presence of women in the decision-making bodies of unions. The 1985 ATF conference rejected proposed constitutional amendments which would have ensured equal representation of women at ATF conference and ATF delegations. The proposal tendered by the South Audtraliar Institute of Teawhers, the only affiliate whose constitution and practices embody equal representation, sought to extend to ATF the right to insist under its rules that the annual conference and delegations would bear a truer correspondence to the rank and file membership of ATF. Given the legijlative or educative option, ATF's affiliates have chosen the educative one. This model for increasing the representation of women operates at various levels within affiliates but notably in the New South Wales Teachers' Federation (NSWTF). An educative or organisational approach seeks to provide the opportunities for women ^.o go through a process of consciousness raising. The aim is to empower women to act in their own interests and mobilise rank and file women members ao that their increased awarenessi interest and confidence is translated into greater commitment and participation in their union. Women's action groups are established in each region and a women's contact person, whose duties are outlined within th^ NSWTF constitution, exists at each school. A proposal aimed at giving nine women unionists experience in their union through assisting a union organiser for one term is to be considered shortly. All teacher unions have either annual women's conferences, status of women committees, elimination of sexism groups or activities aimed at increasing women's participation in their vnion and developing their abilities to take positions of responsibility. ERIC - 135 - The history of women's involvement in the union movement highlights the fact that their struggles have been part of a never- ending battle. At times women have emerged the winners, at other times others fought the battle to its final success long after the first skirmishes developed. The Australian Council of Trade Unions' (ACTU) recent commitment to pursue a test case based on 'comparable worth' is testimony to the lengthy campaign that has been waged to achieve equal pay for women workers. Through the operation of the Accord, the ACTU is placed in a central role in terms of ongoing negotiation with the Federal Labor Government. The ACHJ special unions conference on affirmative action in 1984 decided that, in future discussion and negotiations around the Accord, specific attention be given to the incorporation of ACTU women's policy and the action program for women workers in the A-rcord, and in the initiatives arising from the Accord. Conclusion The union movement is a powerful force for social change and women need to ensure that their demands are incorporated into the mainstream of debates and strategies in regard to this country's future economic and social directions. That places an obligation on women to be active participants in their unions and in the broader labour movement. If women do not pursue their demands through their professional and industrial organisations, it is certain that no one else will take up the cudgels on their behalf. WOMEN AS CANDIDATES F Q H EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTKATION: A SECOND INTERPRETATION Peter OBrien Introduction There are two totally different types of 'true fact' in the universe. They are both genuine fact: both are important to human beings, and they can be, and very commonly are, confused. Type one is the Immovable, absolute, ruthless and unarguable facts of the universe. These facts are coldly impersonal and they flatly refuse to make exceptions, being strictly inhuman and inhumane. The other type, type two, is the set of truths-by-consensus. They are subject to change, exceptions can be made and humane considerations can induce changes in their application. They are human and humane. They are subject to argument, appeal and pressure of opinion. With respect to these facts individual opinion is a meaningful concept. Educational administration both as a field of practice and as a field of study has long operr»ted on the truth by consensus that educational administration is an activity at which males are better than females. This truth by consensus has been elevated to the status of a fact of the universe, at least by those who dominated the study and practice of the field, but it is increasingly a fact under challenge. But as Frasher and Frasher (1980) have noted: Research related to the gender factor in educational administration has yielded an unusur"* phenomenon. Individuals who have searched the literature in this field will testify to the confusing, frequently contradictory, research findings available. Perhaps as a result of this, administrators in general do rjt expect to garner much of practical value from the library. In an earlier paper Briggs and OBrien concluded, after reviewing the achievements and selected characteristics of candidates enrolled in the two coursework awards offered by the graduate program in educational administration at the Flinders University of South Australia that the groups of men and women candidates, respectively, who have enrolled have not shown any marked disparity with regard to age at first enrolment, highest previous qualification, retention in the Programme, awards obtained or grade p^int average achieved. It is regrettable that more women iiave not undertaken the courses of study reviewed here. There is every indication that they would be just as successful in them as their male colleagues. (Briggs and OBrien, 1984) Without in any way retracting from that previous conclusion this paper re-examines those previous findingr and reinte;prets the conclusion in the light of two theme8 drawn from the research literature (over-achievement or-under-achievement of graduate students and staff-student interaction in graduate programs). The Flinders University Progra m In Education Administration The educational administration program began at Flinders University in 1976. It has two full-time staff whose area of specialisation is educational administration and it draws upon the services of staff in other specialist fields, including part-time staff, to supplement the teaching. In terms of full-time specialist staff, year of origin, number of students and of graduates the program is neither the largest, oldest nor most influential of the educational administration degree ^nd diploma programs in Australian and New Zealand colleges and universities (see Duignan and leather 198.S). Thus in many ways it may be taken as representative of its kind. Up to and including 1978, students could enrol either in the Master of Educational Administration (M. Ed. Admin. ) or in the Diploma in Educational Administration (Dip. Ed, Admin. ) program but since then only master's degree candidates have been accepted. Students who have special reasons for not being able to complete the full master's degree program, such as overseas students who are recalled by their government, or employees of the South Australian Education Department or South Australian Department of Technical and Further Education who are transferred to country service, may apply to change their enrolment and to seek the award of the Dip. Ed. Admin, instead. The master's degree requires two years of full-time study or its part-time equivalent and comprises both coursework and an externally- examined research project. The diploma program requires one year of full-time study or its part-time equivalent and is completed by coursework onlv. Students are admitted to the program on the basis of their previous academic record regardless of gender and are required to have completed at least two years of work experience. The Education Administration Candidates 1976-84 This paper like the earlier one (Briggs and OBrien, 1984) considers only those who were accepted as candidates for either award in the years 1976-83 inclusive, while the number of M.Ed. Admin, and Dip. Ed. Admin, graduates includes those who graduated up until May 1984. Though a further six master's and four diploma students completed their program in the period May 1984-May 1985, they are not considered here as the purpose of this paper is i reinterpretation of some of the conclusions of the earlier paper. In the period under discussion 100 males and 32 females were admitted in the program. Of these students 27 had the South Australian education department as their most recent employer at the time of their first enrolment while a further 3 were employed by the South Australian Catholic education system. Table 1 illustrates the variety of backgrounds from which the program has drawn its candidates. Of the 132 students who enrolled, 50 had obtained an award, either tha M.Ed. Admin, or the Dip. Ed. Admin. , by May 1984. Tabie 2 shows the highest previous qualification held by those students on admission to the educational administration program. The most common previous highest qualification was a university bachelor's degree, which waR - 138 i"^^ held by 29 of the 50 students: qualifications such as the diploma in education were not considered here* Table 3 presents information concerning completed, continuing and withdrawn candidates. Of the 132 students admitted to the program 50 had obtained an award in the period till May 1984, 54 had left the program without obtaining an award in educational administration (in some cases students had transferred to another award program, for example the master of education or the doctor of philosophy programs) and 26 were still enrolled* In Table 4 are shown the grade point averages achieved by candidates who had obtained either the M*Ed*Admin* or the Dlp.Ed* Admin, award* In Interpreting these figures it should be borne in mind that the program permits students to take up to one-quarter of the required coursework from any other approved master's level degree program either within the Flinders University or elsewhere* These topics are usually reported in student records as 'status' grades and they have been calculated as being equivalent to a Flinders University 'non-graded pass' and weighted accordingly* The mean age of entering the Flinders University educational administration program of those candidates who obtained an awa^d was 36*1 years: for male graduates the mean age was 36.2 years and for females it was 36*0 years* I_n t er pr e t a t i on of Achievement and Selected Characteristics of Candidates 1976-84 Briggs and OBrien (1984) interpreted the achievement and selected characteristics of candidates in the educational administration program from 1976-84 in the light of literature on women as candidates for careers in educational administration* That original interpretation is recapitulated here* The small number of female candidates in the program reflected the small number of women in administrative positions in the South Australian education system* For example, in 1977, although 58 p r cent of teachers (excluding pre-school teachers, hourly paid instructors and teachers acting in principal education officer positions but including school principals) employed by the South Australian education department were female, only 23 per cent of the promotion positions (those of principal, deputy principal and secondary senior) were held by women* In 1984 57 per cent of the teachers were female and 21 per cent of the promotion positions were held by women (South Australian education department Women's Advisory Unit, 1984)* The total number of males employed as teachers in July 1982 by the South Australian education department, according to its Statistical Information Unit, was 6,ec4 K'hile 9,171 females were employed. The literature suggests a range of reasons i^or the low proportion of administrative posts in education held by women and similar reasons have been suggested for the limited number of women in top administrative posts elsewhere* For the purpose of discussion these n2 139 reasons may be grouped as those dependir.s on the attitudes and actions of others and those for which women are to some extent responsible. An example of the first group is the claim that one of the most serious problems fac9d by women in administration is that of 'blocked promotion'. Cooper and Davidson (1983) suggest: 'For the vast majority of women who are struggling for individual recognition and achievement, the road up the executive ladder is not so easy'. Though there is some evidence in the literature (Stockard 1979) that acquaintance with a female administrator in education tends to slightly increase approval of female administrators, if the blocked promotion is caused by sheer prejudice there is little that women can do about it - other, perhaps, than to adopt the tactics advocated oy Saul Alinsky (1971). The nature of organisational structures has been suggested by some writers as constituting a major barrier to women. Aspects of such structures include recruitment and promotion practices which favour women displaying passive, compliant characteristics which are then cited as justification for the unsuitability of women for administration (Acker and van Houten 1974). Schmuck (1977) has indicated that Men are the managers of public schools ... women face unique deterrents to careers in administration, and traditional practices govern the formal and informal processes of grooming, recruitment and selection that have favoured white males. Communication networks may exclude women from access to vital information (Lloyd 1984) and socialisation structures may support upwardly mobile males to the detriment of females (Marshall 1980). Kanter (1977) has pointed out that a lone women in a hierarchy of male administrators threatens the homogeneity which gives a sense of security to the group member: several other researchers, for example Cromie (1981), Jabes (1980) and Mai-Dalton and Sullivan (1981) have shown that both male and female administrators tend to favour colleagues of their own gender. As those at administrative levels are likely to be less subject than others to scrutiny and control of their actions, such homogeneity is seen as --educing members' uncertainty about others' behaviour: a minority member might act unpredictably and thus constitute a threat to the rest. Thus women are likely to be placed either in positions where an established routine is to be followed or in staff positions rather than in positions offering possibilities for independent decision making (Kanter 1977). Attempts by women to adapt to this situation by following male norms of behaviour are likely to be punished or ignored as being unsuitable for the group of which they are seen to represent tokens (Ortiz 1980). The remedy for the circumstances described above is hard to determine. Adkison (1981) in a review of research on women in school administration, put the problem thus: If, as Kanter maintains, the homogeneous management group constrains woippn in order to minimise uncertainty, women's increased participation in training programs and in administrative roles should reduce uncertainty about their probable behaviours ... I f , as Henley argues, women's participation is - 140 limited to ensure their subordinate status, women's increased efforts to expand their roles should produce increased organisational efforts to restrict that participation. Chapman (1975) after reviewing research on women in economics, concluded that well-implemented anti-discrimination policies would provide the only effective remedy and that it would be useless for women to invest in training or other activities since it had not been demonstrated that these would enhance their ear ing capacity. Adkison (1981) went on to suggest that 'federal, state and local equal employment opportunity legislation and affirmative action policies may have had greater impact on women's aspirations than on institutions'. It may be that the comparatively small number of women enrolling in the graduate program reviewed here reflects women's awareness of this situation but, as Wolf and Fligstein (1979) have suggested, although steps si ould be taken to alter the behaviour and policies of employers it is also important to encourage women to improve their quali f ications . Women's readiness to make the effort to achieve qualifications which might be expected to improve their chances of becoming administrators depends on their aspirations in this direction. Rossi and Calderwood ( 1973) provided documentation that, systematically or otherwise, women have been limited in their effort to achieve in, to earn from, and to participate in higher education. But what emerges from their book is an impression that women have co-operated in this failure to achieve, perhaps because they have been insufficiently motivated by the values of a male-oriented society or inadequately socialised or, knowing these values, unable to bear the heavy costs of commitment that males who run institutions have set or even that they were unwilling to risk failure. Nieva and Gutek (1979) after surveying the literature on female job aspirations and expectations, claimed that no real sex differences existed ?n the importance attached to intrinsic job factors but they dii suggest that women had lower aspirations than did men: What women want from a job tends to be shaped by what they expect to receive, and what they expect tends to be shaped by what they or others like them are receiving or have received in the past. The realities of the present affect aspiration for the future. This view was corroborated in studies reviewed by Adkison (1981^, which linked low aspirations with sex role socialisation resulting from society's expectations of women: Sex typing of school administration combined with sex role socialisation serves to discourage women from preparing for an administrative career. Whilo many women prepare for and enter careers in education, they are less likely than men to express a desire to be school administrators ... Even women in administration admit they were reluctant to seek their positions .. .Among principals, women are less likely than men to aspire to positions beyond the principalship. Edson (1979) found that women are more likely to go into research that into public school administration while Hesse-Biber (1985) found from a survey of male and female perceptions of future career plans ERIC 1 ^: ^ that female respondents selected careers traditionally defined as acceptable for women and expressed less confidence than their male co-:nterparts that they would be successful in their work* Adkison (1981) did report signs that more women were deciding to prepare themselves for careers in educational administration. In the late 1960s, 8 per cent of students in educational administration programs affiliated wit? the University Council for Educational Administration (UCEA) were women. By 1971-72 21 per cent of master's degree graduates in educational administration were women, and by 1975-76 this figure had risen to 29 per cent. Stockard and Kempner (1981) reviewed the enrolments in educational administration programs in several western states in the United States and found that for the period 1974-79 the figures for male and f emal e enrolments in credentialling programs were fairly stable at 70 per cent Ktale and 30 per cent female. Interestingly the figures for non-credentialling degree programs in th« same period were 56 per cent male and 43 per cent female lending support to Edson's contention that women tend to go into research rather than school administration. The number of female master's graduates in educational administration at The Flinders University for the period 1976-84 constituting 31 per cent of the total, is in accord with the above figures. Females comprised 33 per cent of diplomates. Adkison (1981) added that in the period 1971-76 women's share of doctorates in educational administration rose from 6 per cent to 20 per cent. In the period reported in this paper women represented 75 per cent of the doctorates awarded in educational administration. G/oss and Trask (1976) indicated that women are likely to spend a longer time than men as teachers before achieving an administrative position in education while Silver (1977) reported that women had been teaching slightly longer than men before entering a graduate program in educational administration. The mean age at the time of entering The Flinders University program of those male and female candidates respectively who completed a qualification was calculated to see whether the women were on average older than their male counterparts. It was found that the mean age of entrants in this group was 36.1 years: for men it was 36.2 years and for women it was 36.0 years. Silver's (1977) typical' female Job candidate was about 35 years old and was enrolled in a doctoral program which she expected to complete at the age of 36 or 37 years old. The mean age of female entrants at Flinders University is comparable but the candidates her-" reviewed were seeking a master's degree or a diploma and not a doctorate. This may be explained by the fact that in general Australian educational administrators are not expected to hold any qualifications in educational administration and higher degrees of any kind are rarely encountered in the teaching force. In 1983 members of the teaching force (as defined earlier) employed by the South Austral ian education department included seven men and three women with doctorates. The highest previous qualification possessed by all candidates who completed either the M.Ed. Admin, or the Dip. Ed. Admin, at Flinders University was investigated to see whether or not a different pattern emerged for the groups of males and females respectively. As shown in Table 2 although there were more men than women, equal numbers already had a master's or an honours bachelor's degree. There is thut? a slight tendency for womjn as a group to have higher previous qualifications than men but the numbers involved are too small for this tendency to be regarded as important, A much larger proportion of the men had university bachelor's pass degrees which represent the median qualification in the ranking in Table 2. As the literature discusses the job aspirations of women and indicates that they need persistence in order to overcome barriers to promotion Table 3 was constructed to show the numbers of men and women respectively who had left the program, had obtained either the M.Ed. Admin, or the Dip. Ed. Admin, or were continuing candidates. The latter group comprised two students who had been granted an intermission of candidacy and 26 whose studies were not yet completed or who were awaiting the reports of external examiners on their research project. As shown in Table 3 some 54 of the 132 students who had enrolled in the program had left: the reasons for departure included transfer to one of the other programs within the school or university, removal from Adelaide, inadequate standards of work and personal and/or work-related reasons. It cannot be claimed that the figures in Table 3 constitute a clear measure of candidates' aspirations or persistence. Whereas in the early years of the program, that is, 1976 ~ 1978 inclusive, candidates had the option of enrolling either as a master's degree or as a diploma candidate, in later years this option has not been available. The decirion to withdraw from the program or to opt for the lesser award might reflect the pressure of external circumstances or limited academic ability or a change of interests rather than low aspirations or low persistence. Nevertheless, insofar as conclusions can be drawn from the figures shown in Table 3, it is interesting to note that there is no appreciable difference between those for men and those for women. One reason which might account for the small number of women who have achieved administrative positions in education could be that they are, ' fact, less intrinsically able than men to perform the requisite tasks. Although such a claim was commonly made in past years it is rarely encountered in current, serious, literature. Indeed, Frasher and Frasher (1979, 1980) cite details of research studies which consistently show that in nearly every comparison of actual administrative performance there were no gender differences or women received higher ratings. Women ir some administrative posts may be found to be ineffective because of lack of co-operation from male colleagues or from exclusion from their networks (Adkison 1981). It is not claimed that success in the educational administration program at Flinders University is in itself an indicator or administrative ability. It is, however, an indicator of academic ability applied to issues related to administration. The grade point average scores of male and female graduates and diplomats were calculated, therefore, to ascertain whether females had higher or lower scores than males (Table 4). A t-tesc analysis produced no significant differences between the scores of male and of female students. It should be noted that this calculation did not take into account the research component of the master's degree which is externally assessed on a pass/fail basis. ERIC Briggs and OBrien concluded that, though fewer women than men have enrolled in the educational administration program at Flinders University, the groups of ipale and female candidates, respectively, who have enrolled have not shown any marked disparity with regard to age at first enrolmen: highest previous qualification achieved, award obtained, retention in the program or grade point average Bcores: If, as some researchers have claimed, the fact that there are comparatively few female educational administrators has adversely affected education systems, it is regrettable that more women have not undertaken the courses of study reviewed here. There is every indication that they would be just as successful in them as their male colleagues. (Briggs and OBrien 1984) The Conclusion Reinterpreted Berelson, when he spoke about the 1045 findings about human behaviour d rived from the study which he had co-directed with Steiner, com^ ^essed the findings into three propositions (Berelson 1979): 1. Some do, some don't. 2 • The di f f erences aren ' t very great . 3. It's more complicated than that. These three propositions might serve answers to the question: ^Do females perform as well as males in graduate programs in educational administration?' They will serve as a starting point for a reinterpretat ion of the Briggs and OBrien paper's conclusion. In many ways the conclusion cited above is a le f t-handed compliment. It can be claimed that it represented conclusions about success and influence drawn t rom androcentric paradigms: Gatikell (1983) and Shakeshaft and Nowell (1984) have pointed to the fact that mariy of the dominant paradigms of status-attainment, administration and organisatinal aspirations of men and women about care -rs in administration and the conclusion may represent, therefore, onl/ part of the truth. Moreover, the data reported in the original paper are group data and what holds for the group cannot validly be inferred to hold for each member of the group. To infer thus would be to commi t the fallacy of division. In this section of the paper the conclusion originally drawn by Briggs and OBrien is re-examined in the light of two themes drawn from the literature. These themes are that o. over- and under-achievement and that of staff-student interaction in graduate programs. As acl\ievement is related to scaf f-student interaction it will be at times difficult to make clear distinctions in this reinterpre' ition. A question which arises in considering the achievement of males and females in graduate programs is that of why so few women enrol. The proportion of males to females reported for this program compares - 144 - if;? with the proportions cited from overseas literature (for example Stockard and Kempner 1981). Aitken (1982), however, had found that those women who were well educated and who became voters or entered the workforce between 1969 and 1979 are the most highly p ^iticised group in the whole community. While not wishing to imply a relationship between poli ticisation and enrolment in a graduate program in educational administration it is permissible to ask whether Aitken 's findings might not suggest thai the enrolment of women ought not to be higher, given thet teachers may be seen as among the most wtill educated groups in the community. Various authors have commented on attrition and retentior. rates at colleges and universities. Sheldrake (1^76) in a study of why students who had enrolled at Flinders University in the period 1966 - 1975 left the University without completing their degree course, found the part-time students were more likely to withdraw than full-time ones, whether this was to avoid failure or for other reasons. He found also that men were slightly less likely to withdraw from courses than women and that women were more likely to have withdrawn to avoid failure or for other personal reasons but that the differences were not statistically significant. Other reasons cited for withdrawal were ill-health, too-hard work, removal elsewhere or deferral and failure to re-enrol. Sheldrake (1976) concluded that his figures ^provide a slight, but tantalising insight into the reasons that studente are prepared to offer for withdrawal; they hardly explain why so many ^successful' students decide to leave university'. Though Sheldrake's study predated the beginning of the educational administration program, anecdotal evidence gathered during the last nine years suggests that those studente who withdrew from the program shared the same reasons as those in Sheldrake's study, but other reasons may apply, particularly in a graduate program. Solomon (1976) has suggested that women are less likely to go into debt to finance a graduate education that are men while Berg and Ferber (1983) have claimed that women are more likely than men to receive moral and other support from their parents and their partners. Epstein (1973) claimed that women who withdraw are more likely to be met by sympathy, understanding and affection than are men and Hoffman (1974) has said that they are more likely to hs. e options available to them ». men do not. Though no appreciable differences were found in the figures presented in Table 3 concerning withdrawal and retention, insofar as conclusions can l> drawn it would be wrong to infer that the same sets ■)f pressures operated on the two groups of students. It could be argued that factors encouraging persistence in a graduate program operate in favour of women, if one accepts the implications of the research literature cited above. It is interesting to note, for example, that no feniale student has withdrawn from the prograr because of marital breakdown whereas tl is reason has been cited by several males (the program of one female student was adversely affected by the trauma surrounding a divorce but the marital breakdown had preceded enrolment in the progran,). The question of enrolment, attrition and retention as an indicator of o\3r- or under-achievement by males and females enrolled in the program is thus problematical. - 145 - 1.^8 other factors suggest that the picture is not clear cut. It is strongly suggested in the literature that the success or failure of female students in graduate programs is associatefl with such issues as role models and interaction with staff. Astin and Kent (1983) reported positive associations between self esteem and knowing at least one staff member personally, while Tidball (1976) noted that faculty members tend to be supportive of students of their own gender, a view supported by others, for example, Jabes (1989) and Stevens and DeNisi (1980). Estler (1975), Schmuck (1975) and Weber, Feldman and Poling (1980) noted respondents felt that the absence of role models dampened women's aspirations, while Denmark (1980), from a study of students in psychology doctoral programs, concluded that productivity was related to same gender supervisors. In the light of such findings it is pertinent to consider Briggs and OBrien's original conclusion in the light of certain characteristics of the program and its staff. There are two full-time staff members, both of whom cr«» similarly qualified in academic terms (both possess the doctorc\te). For most of the period under discussion, 1976-84, each has occupied highly visible administrative positions within th? school of education and the university. The female staff member has served as program co-ordinator (1976-77 and 1980-82) vice-chai rpersun of the school (1977-78) and chairperson (1983 to date). She was also a successful school principal for a number of years and may thus be d- 3m&d to be a successful role model for women graduate students in educational adminlsti ^ition. In the gender composition of its full-time staff, the Flinders University educational administration program may thus be unique among Australian and New Zealand programs, but the effect of this on students' achievement is difficult to discern. For example, though there is a slight tendency for female studencs in the M.Ed. Admin, to be supervised by the female staff mei;iber (five of the nine M.Ed. Admin, women graduates have been so supervised) it is impossible to ascribe this to same sexhomophily rather than, rja/, to concern for the subject specialisation of the staff. It is difficult to aetermine whut effect the gender of the full- time staff members had on the achievement of the male and female stvdents enrolled in the program. Feldman (1974) and Hitchman (1976) have shown that in American and Canadian graduate programs women tend to receive better grades than men. One possible explanation of this (Adler 1976) is that th:.ii could be a function of the greater self selection of women into graduate studies, which would lead to more qualified women students. It was not found that, for the groups of male and female students respectively, there were appreciable differences in the grade point average scores (see Table 4) but a slight tendency was found for women as a group to havo higher previous qualifications than men as a group (see Table 2) . From the overseas evidence, it could be concluded that womer as a group in the Flinders University educational administration program might be under achieving. It is interesting to refer to a study by Stockard and Wood (1984) in which they examined the achievements of high school graduates. They noted that, although the highest achieving females often have lower average ability test scores than ERIC -U6- i^'O the highest achieving males, thid results not from the under achievement of the brightest females but from the fact that females with a wide range of ability levels receive good grades and on}.^ the very brightest males high grades* In this context, it is perhaps pertinent to note Angrist's and Almquist's (1975) comment on female undergraduates : The student who knows the material and gives tangible eviderce of her brightness to faculty members will reap a harvest. She will find professors interested in her ideasi eager to answer questions, ready to direct her to further information, and above all, willing to get to know her. This again raises the issue of staff-student interaction ana its effect on achievement. While it is conceded that it may be exceeding permissible limits to generalise from undergraduate and high school research to a graduate program, the question does arise whether or not the reported grade point average scores represent something other than mastery of the content matter, for example the operation of a ^Pygmalion effect' (Rosenvhal and Jacobson 1968). In connection with the grade point average score? which reflect grades achieved in the coursework component only of the degree and diploma program, it is pertinent to comment that the dominant form of asbignment on which these grades were based ia the essay. It has been demonstraLed that female students show less growth in methematical and quantitative skills than do their male colleagues and that females are advantaged in essay type questions (Hesse-Biber 1985; Stockard and Wood 1984) even in such rreas as Physics where differences in tested performance are well known (Clay 1982, 1983; Kelly 1981). If such differences hold in graduate programs in educational administration, do the grade point average scores prasent a true picture of achievement - whatever that is? Discussion and Conclusion Even a cursory examination of the research literature suggests that the original conclusion of Briggs and OBrien that females do as well as males in graduate programs in educational administration represents only one layer of the overall truth. The original conclusion wac based on d::':a about groups of students and was sufficient insofar as it went, that is, that there were no marked disparities between the two groups on certain selected variables and that, based on this finding, females would be just as successful in the program as their male colleagues. The conclusion was insufficient in that it did not add ^as a group'. It would be wrong to infer anything from the data and the conclusion about the success of individuals. Neither would it be proper to infer from the data and conclusions that women in educational administration are 'an underachieving group' (Byrne 1978) or an over-achieving group either for that matter. It is apparent from the literature on males and females as graduate students that achievement is related to a number of factors such as the form of assessment used, partner and parental support. ERIC ICO - 147 - willingness to go into debt to finance graduate studies, the degree of sympathy and support available and the impression given to faculty members by ^bright' students. Without a knowledge of how these factors and others operate, to conclude that one group of students would do as well as another becomes a non-conclusion. Other unknowns f ur ther contaminate the conclusion. Students are selected on the basis of previous academic record and gender is not considered either for admission purposes or in planning program structure. It is possible that this procedure itself discriminates against one or another group of students. Freeman (1975) would claim, for example, that an academic program which neither encourages nor di scour ages students of either gender is irherently discriminatory against women because it fails to take into account the differentiating external environment? from which male and female students come, a viewpoint also held by Astin (1979). But Berg and Ferber (1983) have demonstrated the disadvantages from which males suffer in educatl'^n, claiming that there exists a parallel between the position of female students in the sciences and male students in education in terms of lesser achievenient . The notion that it was 'regrettable thai more women have not undertaken the courses of study reviewed here' (Briggs and OBrien 1984) represents perhaps both an androcentric view of success and a notion of group parity, that is, that a group represented among graduate students by some variant of that percentage. This is a quota system, but group parity is not individual equality. It becomes apparent then that the data considered and the conclusion drawn in the original paper represent only one layer of truth. There are different layers to the overall truti; cf ths situation concerning the achievement of male and female students in graduate programs in educational administration and to reject any interpretation would be to dismiss important data that could aid in understanding the issues involved. The search for a causal mechanism which explains achievement is complicated by the fact that the viewpoint of the correspondent may dictate the alternate explanation accepted. This however, helps to emphasise the complexity of the situation and ensures that there is less chance that the phenomenon will be oversimplified. Conclusion This paper began by noting that educational administration has long operated on a truth-by-consensus that males were better than females at the activity of educational administration. This truth is now under attack. In the me an ti me, a no ther truth-by-consensus is emerging: that with regard to the position of women in educational admini strati on ^we know what the position is' . With regard to the matters covered in this paper, that is the achievement of women as candidates for awards in educational administration, the conclusion dissents from this truth. As Frasher and Frasher (1980) have noted, the evidence on the gender factor in educational administration is both confusing and frequ3nt}y contradictory and there are many things not known. For example, it is not known whether colleges and ERIC - 148 - universities should develop special programs for women who wish to become educational administrators and provide useful knowledge and skills or, instead, segregate them, mark them as deficient and convey misinformation. In ouch a situation the gratification of having an opinion should be Jelayed. It is expected of scholars that they should accept but little and then only that little which has withstood the test of critical opinion. Handlin (1971) wrote: 'there can be no scholarly discussion of any brcader matter until there is agreement - total, unqualified, and unconoitional - on the ineluctable and binding quality of the data". Until such data become available, built on good, careful, reasonably agnostic observation (as opposed to experi mental manipulation. Burton 1979), to suggest policy options concerning ways of improving the position of women as can di dates for awards i n educational administration would be (to use Oliver Wendell Holmes' words about the activities of lawyers) to spend time 'shovelling smoke'. At the moment the only proper answer which can be given to the question whether or not men and women (individually or as groups) perform in a comparable manner in graduate programs in educational administration is : I • Some do , some don ' t . 2. The differences aren't very great. 3. It's more complicated than that . (Berelson 1979) - 149 - TABLE 1 LAST EMPLOYER, AT TIME OF ENROLMENT, OF CANDIDATES WHO COMPLETED AN AWARD Employer Masters Male Female Diploma tes Male Female South Australian education department 6 South Australian department of technical and further education 3 South Australian Catholic education system 2 College of advanced education 2 University 2 Church organisation 1 Overseas government service or instruirantali ty 1 Overseas college university 1 IC Total 20 14 TABLE 2 HIGHEST PREVIOUS QUALIFICATION OF ALL CANDIDATES WHO OBTAINED AN AWARD Qualification Male Female Master's degree Honours bachelor ' s degree University bachelor's degree Non-university bachelor's degree Other Total 2 23 3 2 IT" 2 4 6 2 2 T6" ERLC - 150 - TABLE 3 COMPLETED, CONTINUING AND WITHDRAWN CANDIDATES Candidate Male Female Candidates ever enrolled 100 Total number who have obtained an award 34 Candidates who completed the Master's degree 20 Candidates who completed the Diploma 14 Candidates still enrolled or awaiting results 20 Candidates on intermission 2 Candidates who have left the program 44 32 16 9 7 10 TABLE 4 GRADE POINT AVERAGES ACHIEVED BY CANDIDATES Grade Point Average Male Female All Candidates who obtained an award 1.9 2.08 1.99 Candidates who obtained the Master's degree 1.86 1.68 1.80 Candidates who obtained the Diploma 2.0'' 2.59 2.56 An A Grade = 3 A B Grade = 2 A C Grade = 1 A non-graded pass = 1 A grade obtained in a program other than the Flinders University ed. admin. program = 1 ERIC - 151 J^^4 References Acker, J., and van Houten, D.R. 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(1979) Public prejudice against women school administrators: the possibility of change. Educational Administration Quarterly 15(3), 83-96. Stockard, J. and Kempner, K. (1981) Women's reprecentation in school administration: recent trends. Educational Administration Quarterly 17(2), 81-91. Stockard, J. and Wood, J.W. ( 1 984 ) The myth of female underachievement: a re-examination of sex differences in academic underachievement , American Educational Research Journal 21(4). 825-38. Tidball, M.E. (1976) Of men and research: the dominant themes in American higher educational include neither teaching nor women. Journal of Higher Education 47(4), 3:3-38. Weber, M.B., Felman, J.R. and Poling, E.G. (1980) A study of factors affecting career aspirations of women teachers and educational administrators. Paper presented at the Annual AERA Meeting, Boston . Wolf, W.C. and Fligstein, N-D. (1979) Sex and authority in the work place: the causes of sexual inequality, American Sociological Leview 44(2), 235-52. ERIC - 155 - LESSONS FROM THE AFFIRMATIVE ACTION PILOT PROGRAM Maureen Bickley Introduction Just over a year ago in July 1984 the Australian Colloge of Education sponsored its second Women in Educational Mans^ement conference in Armidale. That conference proved a watershed in at least two respects. For a number of Mgher education institutions, the data collection on the position of females within their institutions and the follow-up activities afte" the conference constituted a significant catalyst. The timing was opportune because the Green Paper on 1984 Affirmc*tive Action for Women has just been tabled in Parliament and on 2 July the government's affirmative action pilot program commenced with the participation of twenty-eight of AustraliaCs major private sector employers and three higher education institutions. Over 200,000 employees were involved ia the pilot program. The second watershed was a personal one. Shortly after the Armidale Conference I left my academic position at the Western Australian Institute of Technology to work as a consultar>t with the Office of the Status of WomenCs Affirmative Action Resource Unit. This meant moving to Canberra with my fa*;iily and spending the best part of a year commuting between Canberra, Adelaide and Brisbane to meet with program participants as we 11 as attending mee^.ngs and seminars in Victoria, New South Wales and Western Australia. This paper reviews the pilot program and draws out the lessons that have been learned through the twelve months and their implications for the education sector. The pilot has just finished and the Affirmative Action Resource Unit (AARU) is in the process of 'self de s t r uc t i ng ' , that is, staff are returning to their previous posit ions. The Affirmative Action Pilot Program In 1984 the government set up a working party to review the pilot and to make recommendations to the government cn the form and content of affir-native action legislation. All parties affected by such legislation are represented on the working party - employers, trade unions, education institutions, women, relevant Ministers and a member of the Opposition. During the pilot the government and the participants learned a great deal about the difficulties and successes of introducing affirmative action. The participants presented a considerable amount of information to the working party at a case study day in April 1985 and have completed a detailed questionnaire at the conclusion of th pilot. The AARU conducted public meetings in all capital cities and have been involved in numerous speak i ng engagements. Enormous quantities of affirmative action materials have been prepared, printed and distributed. In idit^'on to these activities, press advertisements invited interested individuals c'^nd groups to make submissions on affirmative action legislation ERIC - 156 - proposals. The quality and quantity of submissio j received was commendable. The working party has already met four times and will meet several more times to prepire its recommendations to the government later. It might be appropriate in light of some of the papers and discussions at this conference to take a little time to clarify the term 'affirmative action'. It seems tnat some people regard affirmative action as synonymous with positive discrimination or quotas. This is not the Commonwealth's position. The policy discussion paper on Affirmative Action for Uoinen (Green Paper) published in 1984 states: The Government defines Affirmative Action as a systematic means, determined by the employer in consultation with senior management, employees and unions, of achieving equal employment opportunity (EEO) for women. Affirmative Action is compatible with appointment and promotion c> the basis of the principle of merit, skills and qualifications. As the Prime Minister said in his tabling speech 'put quite simply, EEO is our objective and affirmative action is the way to achieve it.' The Government has never supported the introduction of quotas but has encouraged the development of strategies, goals and numerical targets consistent with appointment by merit. This of course begs the question 'What Is merit?' Warren Louden has described how the Western Australian education department, as part of its affirmative action program, has reviewed merit to incorporate a range of skills, abilities and qualifications more often identified by and in women. Although the pace of change may be less . apid in the short term than jf quotas were introduced the Commonwealth believes its merit- based approach is both more achievable, realistic and sustainable. There aro some obvious 'traps' attached to quotas which must be avoided. For instance the appointment of the second best and not the best person for the job has long term community costs. Although it may be argued that employment equity is achieved by quotas both the efficiency o'' employment and the quality of serv?ce delivery is reduced. Government employment is not an enr" in itself but the means to an end - the delivery of goods and services to the community. Equal employment opportunity is a means to improve that delivery. However, the definition of positive discrimination is itself not an easy one. It is known that women begin in the system as well or better qualified than men but as a result of women s experiences within the system (what Shirley Sampson called 'their apprenticeship') they fail to gain experiences valued by the system. An affirmative action program would involve a range of strategies designed to compensate and overcome this deficiency. It may mean that the staff training and development budget gets turned on its head for a period of time while resources are allocated to meet the systems most pressing needs, that of its women staff. But is an 80 per cent staff training and development expenditure on women (67 per cent) discriminating against men? It is argued that this is simply one affirmative action strategy designed to achieve EEO. Where differences of opinion exist is in the area of appointment. The ER?C J 70 Commonwealth would argue against the bypassing of the beso person for a job and the appointment of the second, third or fourth best person who are women; that is, providing both the processes of selection and the criteria used in selection are indeed appropriate for the position and free from sex bias. It should be remembered that if there are special reasons why, in the short term, it is appropriate for only a woman to be employed in a certain position - a so called sex-tagged position - thin application can * e made for an exemption under the Sex Discrimination Act and tiie advertisement and recruitment can proceed as such. Lessons from the Pilot The pilot program has been enormously successful and has provided four ^lessons' to explore. Introduce comprehensive plan Firstly, any process of change must be both systematic and comprehensive. Fragmented, one-off changes will certainly be marginalised and eventually swamped. It recommends that participants proceed through a series of eight steps. The pilot indicated that often the skipping of one step cr its undertaking in a token form meant that the introduction of atfirmative action was more easily slowed, sidetracked or compromised. Since an affirmative action program concentrates on the elimination of systemic discrimination, it requires a comprehensive, system-wide introduction. Changes in selection procedures need to be complemented by changes in job design, access to training and opportunities for promotion. Consultation with women and unions proved a vital though difficult step for many participants. The importance of securing and utilising management commitment to EEO has been highlighted as a major factor in ensuring that the change program is integrated into all activities and is taken seriously by the organisation. The Commonwealth program's eight steps are a useful guide for introducing affirmative action and are set out in detail in the implementation manual. Accelerate rate of social change Secondly, the pilot program has shown that it is possible to accelerate the rate of social change. The majority of the pilot participants had little or no involvement with affirmative action or EEO activities prior to July 1984. Within a year almost all had introduced significant and lasting changes in the way they advertised for and selected applicants, in training and promotional opportunities for women and in their collection of data on the position of women within their workforce. Many of these changes are reported in the prof ^ss report issued by the AARU in May 1985. Once the private seccor recognised the benefits of affirmative action they acted quickly and decisively to secure them. These participants have called upon the education sector to accelerate its response rate in the same way. I7i ERIC - 158 - Recruit yomen for non-traditional jobs Thirdly, many pilot participants reported great difficulty in recruiting women and girls to work in non-traditional jobs. The AARU produced a paper for employers to assist them when employing female apprentices for the first time and offered consultancy support to three South Australian companies Santos, Simpsons and Mitsubishi. All of these sought females for engineering and apprenticeship positions but when only 5 females have graduated with bachelors of Engineering in the past two years from South Australia then their difficulties in securing a female engineer are not surprising. Only 8 per cent of engineer graduates are female yet this is almost twice the figure it was five or ten years ago. When participants advertised apprenticeships for females and males the/ received few or no female applicants. Some went to schools and technical and further education colleges to speak to classes in the hope of securing greater numbers oi* female applicants, again with litv^le success. Participants nave called on schools and tertiary institutions to do more. The all too familiar cyclical argument of schools pointing the finger at employers who do not provide opportunities for girls; and employers blaming schools for not preparing girls adequately in terms of pre-requis i tes and attitudes now has an opportunity to be broken. Many employers are for the first time actively seeking girls to fill non-traditional jobs. The demand is there - affirmative action legislation will only serve to strengthen this. Girls completing years 10 and 12 in 1985 will be the target for employers and institutions seeking females in non-traditional jobs and courses. Success in these areas requires more than just preparation through pre-requisites ; it requires an understanding of women's position in the workforce and a number of social skills, including those needed to deal effectively with the sexual harrassment prevalent in these araas. '"^irls also need some understanding of the values of networking and perhaps a greater sense of confidence and determination to succeed. Next year's senior classes will have even wider opportunities. Economists have shown that in Australia's sex segregated labour market, females working in non-traditional areas earn, on average, a greater percentage of the male wage than females concentrated in the predominantly female occupations. But females often have a hard row to hoe in these non-traditional areas. The pilot program and future affirmative action legislation will certainly make the trip a little less harrowing. Just as changes in an organisation must be comprehensive so too must changes in labour market programs be integrated with educational programs to ensure one does not frustrate the progress of the other. Develop education/employment interface Some semployers have actively sought female applicants through school visits. The development of the education/employment or schoo 1 /employer interface is the fourth aspect flowing from the pilot experience. Perceptions of students and in particu3ar those of the parents, lag behind changes in employment patterns. The demand for teaching places after the teacher *boom' had ended was a good example of this. Studies show girls in 1985 still expect to be secretaries, sales assistants, teachers, nurses and clerks. Neither schools nor employers can change these attitudes and perceptions single handedly. J 72 - 159 - The more creative, aggressive use of interface activities, such as work experience placements for girls in non~tradi tional Jobs, the exposure of female students to role models employed in non~traditional jobs, the involvement of major EEO employers with careers counsellors, and special parents programs could a) 1 be used to accelerate attitude change. This role of the employer /school interface is not a new discovery but what is new is the new climate among employers created by the pilot and perhaps a new energy generated by imminent aftirmative legislation. It is important that in the next few months a number of possibilities for facilitating co-operative arrangements between employers and the education sector are explored which will complement affirmative action legislation. Conclusion In conclusion the pilot program has shown that it is possible to accelerate the process of labour market change but co do so requires the commitment of senior management and of corporate resources to introduce a comprehensive and systematic program. While the pilot has pointed out the deficiencies in the education and training of women and girls it has also produced a much improved climate for co- operative efforts by employers and the education sector in seeking a solution. If the benefits of the co-operative policy development between employers and the Office of the Status of Women in the pilot is any indication of the unfolding possibilities then the future is indeed much brighter than thought possible one year ago at the 1984 conference on women in higher education management. ERLC - 160 - GETTING PAST ^SHOCK-HORROR' t STAGES IN THE ACCEPTANCE OF EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY IN An ORGANISATION Hester Eisenstein The New South Wales government has since 1980 been impleipsnting a program of affirmative action under Part IXA of the Anti-Discrimination Act. The Office of the Director of Equal Opportunity in Public Employment is charged with this work. As senior adviser in the office since 1981 and more recently as assistant director since 1984 I have had a fair amount of experience in seeing organisations and individuals react to the impact of this legislation. This paper outlines a paradigm of common stages that people and ir^titutions go through as they draw up an equal employment opportunity management plan and then begin to take action to achieve the objectives set forth in the plan. In order to understand these stages one needs to know that Part IXA provides for institutions to develop a statistical analysis of their workforce by means of a confidential questionnaire, a critical review of the personnel practices within the organisation and a set of strategies for change. These are clearly set forth with objectives, specific actions to be taken with responsibility for those actions allocated to named individual officers, some procedure for evaluation of the strategies and a target date for completion. Commonly each organisation designates, or preferably appoints after external advertisement, an equal e: ployment opportunity (EEO) coordinator to carry out this task and designates a very senior officer -'n the organisation to supervise the work and to lend support to the enterprise on an institutional basis. By now, of course, the larger government organisations in New South Wales have not only an EEO officer but an EEO unit of up to fifteen officers with specialised functions, such as liaison officer on behalf of Aboriginal employees, staff development officer on EEO issues and research officer to establish and monitor statistical records. Thus the work of implementing EEO strategies in the organisation is well and truly an operating part of its life, although it would be an exaggeration to bay that these developments have occurred without a good dual of external prodding from the Office and occasionally some forceful representations from the Minister responsible as well. In tne process, one has had the occasion to see how individuals and groups react to the ac tual isation of the law in the creation of jobs to carry out EEO duties, the redirection of r3Sources toward EEO implementation and changes to procedures in response to EEO ini tiati^ -^s . Obviously there is considerable variation in these reactions. The people who are themjelves the members of the 'target groups' of the legislation - currently, women, migrants of non- English-speaking background, Aborigines, and people with physical disabilities - would hive a different set of reactions to people not members of these (overlapping) categories. The paradigm outlined here generally speaking is descriptive of members of the majority culture - that is, men of English-speaking background accustomed to the culture of organisations as they were prior to the introduction of EEO policy. But with some variations the paradigm may also well apply to target group members who feel ambivalent about their inclusion in what ic, an - 161 -174 intervention that brings shock waves of change that are not always •?xperienced as welcome. The first stage is one of shock, horror and disbelief. This is the stage in which individuals query the legitimacy of the enterprise at a fundamental level. Why has the government passed such legislation? Is it not a complete waste of the taxpayers' dollar? What is it these women want anyway? Often people are unaware that in New South Wales women are only one of the target groups of the legislation. During this stage, individuals (and organisations in a corporate sense) are dismayed at having been brought under the legislation, resent and fear its impact and are full of misgivings, often ^ased on serious misinformation. One government department was swept by rumours in the first year of the legislation (from 1980 to 1981) that the government policy would result in the sacking of half of the male professional staff and the hiring of women in their place to reach a 50:50 ratio. They learned with relief that the office required numerical or percentage targets that were incremental and short-term, for example, from zero representation of women in a given job classification to two women or 5 per cent in a two-year period, via selection on a merit basis^. The se^^ond stage is one of critical inquiry. In this stage people have got over their shock and have begun to inform themselves cf the actual requirements of tho legislation, the office end how the legislation will affect them and their interests. The preparation cf the EEO management plan often brings people from stage one to stage two by virtue of their being included in the work, whether this involves filling out thn questionnaire, participation on a working party to review personnel practices, or selection to serve on an advisory committee that assists the EEO coordinator in preparing the data for the final report. Others move to the stage of critical inquiry by virtue of hearing an EEO talk that strikas them as convincing or as the result of a personal experience - for example, the arguments of a daughter at the family dinner table. The third stage in the paradigm is the action phase. This occurs when an organ is-ition actually begins to move, to take actions as directed by the EEO management plan, and to ai f ect thereby the working life cf ths organisation. For example, the head of the organisation (a secretary a department or the principal of a college of advanced education) issues a directive that no one can serve after a specified date on a selection committee without having been through a course on selection techniques. Alternatively, the organisation spts up an internal grievance mechanism and invites applications from staff members to be trained as grievance officers on EEO matters. Any visible decision that changes previous procedures and makes new 1. Ziller Alison, 'Defining Merit' a keynote address at a conference 27 September 1985, available from the Office of tne Director of Equal Opportunity in Public Employment, 8-18 Bent Street, Sydney, NSW 2000 ERIC - 162 - requirements upon staff members initiates this phase, which is characterised by the fact that EEO policy has begun to bite. It moves from being an idea or a policy in the abstract to being an entity that affects the working life of members of the organisation. Needless to say, stage three is immediately followed by stage four which is reaction or backlash. This is when the opp .,ents of the EEO policy come out of the woodwork and actively oppose the new procedures. Alternatively, they can begin to white-ant the new policy more surreptitiously, via campaigns of rumours about the EEO officer, and (in more blatant instances) via intensification of sexual and racial harassment aimed toward those they perceive will be benefiting from the new regime of EEO if it is allowed to prevail. In discussions of this paradigmn it has been put to me that it is difficult t(. distinguish betwf3n stage one and stage four, that is, between shock, horror and disbelief, and backlash. But the distinction I am making here is between the attitudes and reactions prevailing before a program takes effect and those aroused since the program's effects have become visible in the workplace. (In an unkind but telling throwaway line Dr Peter Wilenski has said that Australia is the only country in the Western world where you can have oacklash without reform ! ) Finally stage five I term ownership and innovation. In th:.s stage individuals have gone beyond their reactions of anger and disbelief or resentment and have come to see that EEO has the potential for improving the organisation overall. The classic instance here is the head of organisation who realises that the collection of statistics for EEO purposes will represent a major database for other management planning. Fiom seeing the EEO policy as an unwarranted intrusion upon his or her autonomy as a senior executive, he or she moves to seeing it as a tool by which he or she can have a better grasp on the workings of the organisation. In the ownership and innovation stage, people understand EEO issues and policies sufficiently to have digested the implications and to have begun thinking for themselves about what kinds of initiatives can be brought in as part of an EEO plan This stage can and ideally should occur at all levels of an organisation. Trade union members and officials be£^'n to see the benefits of removing discriminatory award provisions which deny benefits unfairly to some categories of workers. An example of an EEO initiative that brings extra benefits to workers is the introduction of English language classes on the job. The same argument applies to the introduction of cnildcar^ as an industrial right. In elaborating this paradigm there has been a deliberate move oack and forth between characterising individuals and characterising organisations. This is considered accurate, in that the process of change must be undergone by individuals in an organisation, and also by the organisation itself as a kind of organism with a shared culture and history. The^j^rocess needs to occur at both levels for EEO ultimately to succ'^ed^ The paper has focused upon attitudinal change, which is or course only one aspect of the total process. It is arguable that behavioural ERIC - 163 change must proceed attitudinal change and often in an EEO program thi3 is the case: that is, the action phase of an EEO program requires chan.^ed behaviours in the workplace. Only later does the behaviour become voluntary rather than a form of lip-service. In the long run however a healthy EEO program must get to stage five to flourish. This may seem a utopian objective in the light of the public outcry that has greeted the announcement of federal affirmative action legislation. However the New South Wales experience with affirmative action gives ground for optimism. That some individuals and organisations - however small in number - have passed from shock-horror to ownership and innovation is a piece of evidence that this process can occur and will over time. When this paradigm was discussed in Queensland some months a^o the question was put from the floor about what steps could be taken to get to the shock-horror stage. Perhaps in Queensland that stage is currently about to be reached. New South Wales is further down the track. Good advice to people seeking to make use of the paradigm is to bear it in mind and to use considerable energy and patience in persuading people to mova from shock-horror to critical inquiry. With any luck a certain percentage of people affected by an EEO program - and of course the members of target groups who will stand to benefit directly from the program - will move directly from stage two to stage five and act as catalysts within the organisation. Others will inevitably move at their own pace through the stages and some will remain stuck at backlash forever. The role of EEO officers and those sympathetic to their work is to shepherd people skillfully th'^ough the stages and to make sure that the EEO program proceeds in an orderly and efficient manner. There is no remedy for the drama occasioned by rapid social change. But the countervailing force of education is a powerful agent in ensuring that the objectives of EEO policy are met rather than obstructed. ERIC 177 - 164 - MAKTNG PROGRESS Rosematg Gracanin Introduction This paper presents comments and reflections on the activities and interests of the past three days rather than a conference evaluation. South Australian colleagues have contributed to the paper in their usual supportive and collaborative way« The conference ranged over a smorgasbord of issues from which a few have been selected for discussion, beginning by looking at the threo aims of the conference. The Current Position The first aim was that participants should gain a clear picture of the current position of women in management in primary and secondary education. It became obvious at the 1983 Australian College of Education conference in Melbourne that there was a need to look more closely at the various sections of education separately, hence the 1984 conference at Armidale concentrating on women in higher education management in Australia and this 1985 conference concentrating on women in management at primary and secondary levels. Through the research of Dr Shirley Sampcon and Dr Judith Chapman and the papers presented over the last three days from each state* the picture has become clearer and many concerns and perceptions of the ^state of play' have been confirmed by this sharing of information. The picture is not rosy - it was not expected to be. With only 23 per cent of women in principal positions there is a long way to go. Clearly much remains to be done. Changes are happening but women must keep using their skills and commitment to find new and creative ways of chan'^ing the overall picture. This is beginning to happen and the successful strategies discussed at this conference show the debate is entering a new phase. A National Network The second conference aim was to make and renew contacts. Women at this conference have indicated they now feel secure as part of a national network of very able, capable, successful women. There is now a feeling of equality as though women are there to help each other. This conference has been characterised by a lack of competitiveness and the sort of 'one-upmanship' that women have experienced at some male-dominated conferences. In addition, it is a mark of this conference that men have participated as speakers and full-time members. The confer^^nca has shown that men as well as women can function in a co-operafc i ve , collaborative manner. Systems have historically seen the inequality of women in management positions as a wome 's problem. As one man at ERLC - 165 - this conference has stated this issue must be confronted by both men and women* Renewed Enthusiasm The third aim of the conference was for women and men to be re- inspired to direct energy into pursuing the inclusion of women in management of schools and systems. Through the quality of the speakers, the quality of the organisation the quality of the interaction, and the quality of the individuals and their contributions, participants at this conference have been challenged to make their own personal decision about how best to use a direct the energy and renewed enthusiasm acquired within their own milieu. Emerging Issues Many issues have emerged and a few are hignlighted in this paper. Selection procedures for senior positions. The processes involved in the selection of senior positions require constant vigilance. The selection criteria, job descriptions and specifications must be non- sexist and must be challenged when they are sexist. Where there is a policy of including someone with an equal opportunity role on panels, that person must ensure equal treatment, not only in terms of sex, but also age and race, eliminate hearsay remarks which are damaging to applicants, and challenge the unexamined assumptions about women, including their capabilities and personal qualities and leadership style, COmPo ition of Selection Panels. In relation to the composition of selection panels the ultimate aim must be for gender balance as an affirmation of women's contribution. The criteria and emphasis given to particular skills will change where both men and women are involved and share the responsibility for decisions. Social attitudes towards women in management. Social attitudes towards women in management are developed partly by how others view women and partlv on hr^ women view themselves. Women have often been described as militant feminist confrontationists or alternatively whining, complaining, har d-done-by-women , Such views of women ndicate extreme stereotyping. In the past the system has adopted a '«ficit model of women ir management in its attempts to redress the in^-qua 1 i t i es in terms of the number of women in senior positions. This has been a naive and unsophisticated point of view in which the outcor^ has been the attempt to equip women with those skills which have been traditionally associated with men. The conference has enco- ragea the sharing of the positive attitudes, strategies, knowledge and skills that women have, so that they can .^uild on each other's success within their own frameworks and present the new and emerging role model for women so different from the "Uticle Tom' model. The exercise of women's power is in the way women manage themselves as individuals, recognising and capitalising on the uniqueness of their skills and their differences. Women need to have faith in themselves as managers with strengths. ERIC - 166 - The changing role of the manager. Some of the strengths that the emerging women in management bring to the corporate table include: the ability to see issues clearly, penetrate the murky confusion, get to the heart of the matter and estu*)lish what the real issue - the refusal to play ^one-upmanship' games by being supportive of people's work and treating them as equals regardless of their sex; - the capacity to see the consequences of decisions and place those squarely on the table; - preparedness to trust *.n intuition which is learned skilled based on female experience; respect for sensitivity and perception which leads women to recognise that people, and more particularly children, are on the end of decisions made. Personal career planning. There are two common debilitating syndromes which women can lock themselves into - even though they want promotion. Sampson's research indicated one to be the couldn't possibly do that' synd/ome and the other ^I'm not able to take promotion because I iiave too many family ties and responsibilities' syndrome. These attitudes are at one end of the continuum. At the other end is the necessary positive self-fulfilling statement which is; *I can make things happen for myself. The necessary process is to move from the self-defeating end of the continuum to the sell- actualising end and is characterised by the recognition that all people make choices. In order to be in the position to make positive choices women have to work within the system to provide *-he strategies to increase opportunities and provide more viable opportunities for women. Given that these opportunities become available, the choice of using them is then up to individual women. Some of the strategies mentioned over the last three days include: networking undergoing '•raining programs awareness raising personal c unselling of other women (If each participant helped one othe*- woman to raise her awareness and self esteem next week there would be another 150 women with vision) acting at high duties level undertaking further studies if this is necessary being talked to by others who have successfully managed constantly reinforcing the message. Research. Research is essential to provide a considered and clear knowledge base. Women must take cognisance of Dale Spender's I - - 167 - arguments for women defining their own areas of research. The monitoring of ongoing statistics to follow the path of change essential to that sound knowledge base* The collection of case studies of successful women in management to establish common factors wi IV i lluminate the path for progress. Conclusion The way forward is exciting, challenging and stimulating. Women face the choice of being managers who exhibit male, female, androgynous or gender-inclusive characteristics. As John Steinle stated in his paper: There are distinct and positive differences in the way women approach and carry out their jobs. They are now in sufficient numbers to have an impact on the male definition of the ^succes3ful' manager in education. As more women are able to enter senior management positions, one can anticipate more ^gender-inclusive' models of management. Gender-inclusive models are more attractive to women and indeed to men, particularly in the field of education because these models value and affirm h^man skills, experiences and visions of equality. Women are without doubt making progress. ERIC - 168 - TOWARDS THE YEAR 2000 - REFLECTIONS ON THE NAIROBI END OF THE UNITED NATIONS DECADE FOR WOMEN KORUM AND CONFERENCE Gail Radford Introduction This paper was written at short notice immediately after return from the United Nations Forum to mark the end of the UN 'Decade for Women'. It was prepared for the Conference after-dinner speech and presents reflections on the Forum (held in Nairobi in July 1985) rather than any insightful analysis of its significance. It is a feature of United Nations conferences that they also hold, concurrently, a gathering of non-governniental organisations to discuss the same topic. In Mexico in 1975 a Tribune was held at the same time as the United Nations conference to mark the beginning of the UN Decade for Women. The conference to mark the mid-decade which was held in Copenhagen, also had a forum. Although non-governmental organisations or NGOs are organisations which are officially accredited with the United Nations, it is not only members of NGOs who attend these gatherings. In the words of the opening program for the Nairobi fo*"um ^Everybody is welcome' - and practically everybody came to Nair In total 17,000 people attended either the conference or the forum, the conference being the smaller with only 2,000 participants. NGO Foru m The lasting memory of the forum is one of tremendous activity and exchange of information and the vast hospitality and friendliness of the Kenyan women. The media coverage in Australia was pretty dismal but there were some 1,400 journalists in Nairobi. The reported administrative mishaps were vastly over-emphasised by the media. What would have happened at the Australian National University if 5,000 people had been expected to attend such gatherings and instead 17,000 arrived. The university halls of residence were turned over to forum participants. There was some unpleasantness when women attending the forum were asked to move out of first claBS hotels to make room for official delegates to the conference. This was probably the fault of the high commissions and embassies in Nairobi for not informing the women while still in their own countries that they would be required to live at the university. This had certainly been done well ahead by the Australian High Commission in Nairobi. The accommodation at the university was quite adequate, with brand new bedding and towels. As is asual in residential living, those who got up earliest got the hot showers. The restaurants in Nairobi served absolutely delicious food, African, Indian, Chinese and European. Although it was not considered safe to walk in Nairobi at night there was never a problem getting a taxi to go down town or back to the university. Waiting in line was a feature of the torum. However, for most tbit^ was not a negative experience but an opportunit' to meet women from many different parts of the world, exchange addresses and establish friendships. It was an unforgettable experience to sit on ERIC - 169 - the grass in the middle of the main square at the university waiting to register - among thousands of women in bright coloured costumes; Africans in brilliant cotton dresses; Indians in saris and women in western dress looking drab by comparison; women from the Sudan, wearing pastel coloured veils and Indians from the mountains in Chile, wearing elaborate costumes similar to those worn in Nepal in India. The opening of the forum was held in the Kenyatta Centre, later to be the venue of the official conference. This is an enormous conference centre and when filled with all the forum participants, led in song by the African women, provided very emotional and inspirational moments. One of the speakers at the opening was Dame Nita Barrow, a woman from Barbados, who was convener of the conference. She said Some among you may only be here to go on Safari, but for the others there is much to see, much to do. Many have come to present workshops and many, I hope, to listen. In fact, during the next two weeks, it became obvious that for most the primary intention was hard work, although tha Kenyan tourist industry did a thriving business arranging safaris to the game parks for ir^ny forum and conference participants. A daily newspaper called Forum 85 was produced. This was an excellent paper and set out the many daily events, reported on the workshops and interviewed leading participants. Those who wish to know more about the forum activities should try to borrow copies of these newspapers. Each day at any time there would be at least 50 simultaneous workshops in full swing with over 100 held each day. Cultural events were staged all day in the French Cultural Centre; there was an exhibition of technology and tools on the sports fields; a peace tent and numerous little stalls; dancing groups and groups of women who had Just come together to sit on the grass and talk. Needless to say, it was impossible to attend all activities, but with 250 Australian women at the forum many were covered. A group of Australian women from Victoria has agreed to prepare a report on the forum, which should be available in the next few months. FORUM 85 urged women to use every opportunity to build up their own networks. When it workshops, having lunch or dinner, or sitting together in the evening, so many women from all parts of the world would never again have a better chance to create their own special interest international networks. This was the most important outcome of the Copenhagen forum and will also be one of the most important outcomes of the Nairobi fcrum.. Initially I chose to attend Equality and Employment workshops but soon found myself fascinated by workshops presented by third worla women. While moT^v were not directly relevant to my work in Australia, they gave me a broador appreciation of the problems of women in many countries in the world - many problems confronting women in Australia paling by comparison. Agriculture in Africa relies on the female labour force, working in the traditional manner, with low productivity and lack of access to - 170 - resources. New technology has had a negative effect on women in agriculture in Africa, Mechanisation has tended to replace female labour, the new employment created by mechanisation usually going to men. Expansion of cash crops utilising mechanised methods frequently requires more land, pushing food producers to less fertile and marginal land, thus further decreasing their productivity. Access to fresh, safe wat r is a major problem, especially in the rural areas where many African women have to walk many mil i each day to collect water often sleeping overnight at the well before returning home with fresh water in the morning. The bulk of Africa's energy comes from firewood, which is gathered by the women. The difficulties African women face in gathering wood are compounded by inefficient use of energy. Most wood used for cooking or heating is burned in open fires '.n which as much as 95 per cent of the energy generated is lost. This means that a high amount of wood is consumed and women must go to fetch wood frequently and return bent over by the heavy loads on their backs. As more and more wood is used the women have to walk further and further to find trees. There is also a danger that if this extravagent use of wood continues for too long that parts of wooded Africa will soon be a desert. The technology and tools exhibition was of particular importance to African women and other third world women facing similar problems. Emphasis was placed on products which used technology to lighten women's workload and provide opportunities for the generation of income. It was divided into six main workshops: food processing and storage technology; health, including water and sanitation; communication technology; energy technology; agricultural technology; income generating technologies. Questions addressed here included how to integrate appropriate technologies into women's income-producing projects; how to communicate information about the appropriate technology to local groups in each country; how women can persuade training and educational institutions to off*=-r courses relevant to their project work with appropriate technology and, most importantly, how women can take control of technology and not vice versa. On the Saturday of the forum, participants were provided with opportunities to meet rural Kenyan women first hand. Thousands of women were taken by bus to many country areas where they were greeted by dancing and singing rural women, who explained their local projects. These projects were all in addition to the work the women did looking after their families .^nd their farms. Many women were making handicrafts and sought the .help of overseas visitors to find markets for these handicrafts. Other projects were an example of non- traditional work for women. In one, women were making concrete building blocks and in another, they were running a hardware store. Equality^ peace and development were themes for WcTten's Decade and for many women, there cannot be equality or development in their countries without peace and freedom from domination by outside powers. Many issues, which are or> the UN's agenda, were discussed in the ER?C -1,1 -lfi4 workshops at the forum - the Israel/Palestinian problem, and appeal by women in Iraq for cessation of the war with Iran, the invasion of West Papua by Indonesia, El Salvadore and the Nuclear Free Pacific to name a few. But unlike the UN meetings this did not stop the business of the forum. Women came to learn and listen and establish a dialogue. The blue and white peace tent provided a space for discussions to continue once workshops concluded. The peace tent was the result of six months' work by forty women from fifteen different countries. Its purpose was to provide an opportunity to prod :ce feminist alternatives to men's conflicts. At one stage there was a suggestion that the Kenyan authorities would close the tent as discussions were considered too anti-American. Dame Nita Barrow said that if the peace tent was closed, she would close the forum. Dame Nita is a very strong woman and the tent remained. There is not time to mention all the highlights of the forum but two issues provide an example of how women have combined across national boundaries to take concerted action. One is the geni tal mutilation or circumcision of women and the other the sexual exploitation of young girls and women of the third world. In Copenhagen there was confusion surrounding the topic of genital mutilation, over some African resentment of what they saw as an effort to handle the issue by western women with a mission to save Africans. It was clear from the workshops in Nairobi that a high shift had occured in the fight to stop circumcision. Africans now *own' the problem and many are taking effective measures to eradicate it. The Nairobi workshops were organised by an inter-African committee, which came into being at a conference held in Dakar in February 1984. Following this confi?rence national commissions were set up in a number of countries to implement its recommendations. More than 26 African nations came together in Khartoum in October 19b4 for an intensive five day workshop, entitled *The African woman speaks out against female circumcision'. Seminars have been organised for people generally and nurses and midwives in particular, teaching aids developed and publicity campaigns drawn up. Efforts are being made to stop midwives from conducting the operation and perpetuating the practice, both through education and by trying to find other sources of income for them. Funds for launching some of them in petty trading are being sought. Networking between the women in ♦'hese countries concerned is proving to be extremely useful. Solutions and proposals for activities were exchanged at the forum. Women from the Phillipines discussed the progress they have made in trying to prevent the sexual exploitation of women in their country by tourists. Here Filipino women and Japanese women had combined together to present information about sex tcnrs to the Philippines. Asian wcnen spoke of the exploitation of their women by foreign military pers'^nnel based in their coun tries. The exploi tat ion of African wom&n in Europe was also discussed and there was a call for Unesco to place the prevention of sexual exploitation of children high on their agenda. Much activity can be expected in this area as the result of networks formed at the Nairobi forum. ERLC - 172 - Australian women also presente^i workshops on subjects such as ant •-discrimination and the comparable worth of work. Aboriginal women presented an excellent workshop to a packed room. UN Conference In the midst of all this activity the offir.al UN Conference began, but such was the degree of energy at che forum that the conference seemed almost an irrelevance. The members of the Australian delegation came to the forum each night to meet with forum participants. This was considered essential for, as Senator Patricia Giles, leader of the Australian delegation said, it wu<; only by the efforts of the NGOs that the UN Decade for Women was established and any document produced by hhe coi'j^erence would only be implemented in all countries by thi' concerted efforts of NGOs. The Nairobi conference started under a considerable cloud. Earlier preliminary conferences had made little headway. These had produced a large document on which there was no agreement except for its name. This certainly sounded as if it had been written by a committee. The document was known by the incredible titlf^ of ^ Forward-^look i ng strategies of implementation for the advancement of women and concrete measures to overcome obstacles to the advancement of the goals and objectives of the United Nation? decade for Women for the period 1986 to the year 2000: equality, development and peace.' Not surprisingly it was soon k.;own as the ^Forward-looking Strategies' or FLS for short. The FLS was some 300 - AOO paragraphs long and two committees were set up to consider different paragraphs. Huch drafting and redrafting went on in these committees, but progress seemed extremely slow to foru!. participants who were used to the frenetic pace of the forum. Eventually the FLS was presented to the plenary session of the conference on the last day. All went well until 4pm in the afternoon when the conference caiie to paragraph 95 which included the word Zionism in a list of major obstacles to women's advancement, such as apartheid and racism. This of course was the rock on which the communi que from the Copenhagen conference foundered. Australia and other countries refused to sign a document containing these words. The plenary session broke up while intensive lobbying went on. What followed were very tense hours indeed when it seemed that once again no agreement could be obtained and the FLS would be lost. The leader of ^he Kenyan delegation said later that it was like watching a baby die in your lap. But by ll.SOpm the African women had managed to obtain agreement to an alternative form of words - ^and all other forms of racial discrimination' was to replace Zionism. The FLS was saved and the remaining paragraphs passed by the Plenary by 4am. So the conference, which had started with agreement only on a name, concluded with a blueprint action for women in the areas of equality, development and peace to be taken by all countries between 1985 and the year 2000. !*• was the largest UN conference ever, with the largest number of countries which had ever participated in a UN ERIC - 173 - conference and was the first time that such a document had been arrived at by consensus. There is much work ahead for governments and NGOs alike if its ideals are to be achieved by the year 2000. 1R7 - 174 - APPENDIX 1 RECOMMENDATIONS AND STRATEGIES The Conference Planning Committee for the National Conference 'Women in Management in Primary and Secondary Education : Making Progress' presents the following resolutions to the ^ouncil of the Australian College of Education. The recommendations arose from Conference workshops, were presented to the final plenary session for preliminary endorsement and then forwarded to all participants for endorsement. The Conference expressed appreciation for the support of the Cv xlege in sponsoring three conferences on women in educational management . It is recommended that the Australian College of Education endorse the following general principles: the fundamental right of women and men to be equally responsible for the management of schools and education systems; equitable representation of women and men in policy formulation and decision making in schools and education systems; improved access to professional development in education management, which may entail special provision for women; improved information collection and dissemination relating to educational management. These principles are reflected in the following recommendations to the College and to education authorities and organisations in Australia. AUSTRALIAN COLLEGE OF EDUCATION It is recommended that the College: ask the editors of Unicorn to: - include an overview of the conference in an early issue of the journal in 1985; - consider the publication of other suitable papers presented at the conference, subject to normal editorial procesg; advertise the availability of the full co'^i-rence proceedings which are intended for publication as a separate title; ask each Chapter of the College to hold appropriate follow-up activities on women in ecacational management aimed specifically at classroom teachers; ask its national Research Committee to consider and encourage research projects which: ERIC - 175 - provide a profile of girls' educational backgrounds and their career destinations so that an assessment can be made of their courses to see whether chey have enablec^ girls to gain the necessary confidence to enter education management; - disseminate information about the Victorian SCOPE program throughout Australia to all education authorities and the media so that the existing situation is highlighted; *- disseminate information about exemplary programs whi ch contribute to increasing the participation of women in management positions in schools and school systems. transmit the conference recommendations to the following groups: government and non-government systems authorities; Australian Education Council; - Commonwealth Schools Commission; - Ministers and Shadow Ministers of Education, State and Commonwealth; - government and non-government teachers' .nd parents' organisations; - Office of the Status of Women and the National Women's Consultative Council; - women politicians. State and Commonwealth; - wom